Improving the rural livelihoods in the Ganges delta through integrated, diversified cropping and aquaculture, and through better use of flood or salt affected areas
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful for help and
assistance to Dr. B.R.Sharma, Leader of BFP-IGB and Head of IWMI (India), Dr.
P.K.Joshi, Former Director of NCAP, New Delhi (presently Director of NAARM,
Hyderabad) (India), Dr. S.P.Sinha Roy, Retd. Member of the Central Ground Water
Board (India
Contents
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Section No.
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Title
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Page No.
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Executive Summary
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6
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1
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8
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1.1
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Landforms and regional setting
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8
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1.1.1
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Tidally dominated
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9
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1.1.1.1
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Nature of formation and general features
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9
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1.1.1.2
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Purposes of this study
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11
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1.1.1.3
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Geographical
locations and distributions
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11
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1.1.1.4
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Climate
and anthropological factors
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14
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1.1.1.5
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Hydrology and water management
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16
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1.1.1.5.1
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Neo-tectonic movement
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16
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1.1.1.5.2
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Resuscitation of the
-Geological features
-Chemical characteristics and arsenic contamination
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17
19
21
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1.1.1.6
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Soils
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22
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1.1.1.6.1
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Acid sulphate soils
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22
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1.1.1.6.2
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Salt affected soils
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24
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1.1.1.7
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Forestry/ Biodiversity
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27
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2
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Present
status in research and development, socio-economic benchmarking and means to
improve productivity
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27
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2.1
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Contribution of agriculture to GDP
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27
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2.1.1
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Socio-economic benchmarking in agricultural sector
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29
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2.1.1.1
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Household characteristics and trend
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29
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2.1.1.2
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Size of farm holdings
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29
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2.1.1.3
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Status of operational area
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31
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2.1.1.4
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Economic
status
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31
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2.1.2
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Status in research and development
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32
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2.1.2.1
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Cropping system, areas and
productivity levels
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32
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2.1.2.2
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Improved crop varieties`
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34
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2.1.2.3
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Soil management
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35
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2.1.2.4
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Crop water productivity (WP)
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35
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2.1.2.5
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Water demand and availability
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35
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2.1.2.6
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Flood control and drainage
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36
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2.1.2.7
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Flood forecasting
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37
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2.1.2.8
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Integrated water management: Micro-watershed or OFR
approach
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38
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2.1.2.9
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Land shaping
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39
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2.2
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Contribution of aquaculture to GDP
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39
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2.2.1
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Status in research and development
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40
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2.2.1.1
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Different
farming practices
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41
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2.3
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Integrated farming approach
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42
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3
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SWOT analyses
-Agricultural sector
-Aquaculture sector
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42
42
43
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4
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Possible
technological and institutional interventions and their impacts towards the
development of agriculture and aquaculture in Tidally Dominated Ganges Delta
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44
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5
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Evolved
issues or thematic plans and proposed action related to work plan
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48
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6
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List of Institutes (for collaboration/ partnership)
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51
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7
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Literatures cited
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52
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List of
Tables and Figures
Table 1. Geographical settings of the TDGD across India Bangladesh
population and climate
Table 2. Morphological, physical and physico-chemical
characteristics of acid sulphate soils
Table 3. Morphological, physical and physico-chemical
characteristics of saline soils
Table 4. Agro-chemical
characteristics of soils in some of the coastal and offshore areas (saline
belt)
In Bangladesh
Table 5. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Bangladesh
Table 6. Percent Distribution of NSDP of West Bengal
by economic activities (at 1993-94 constant
prices)
Table 7.
Percent contribution of NSDP of
West Bengal by Tidally Dominated Districts (at 1993-94
constant prices)
Table 8.
Area, Production and Yield of crops under TDA in WB, India
Table 9.
Input use per hectare under OFR in Sundarbans delta, India
Table 10. Annual total production (tonnes) of
fish in Bangladesh
Table 11. Fish production (tonnes) in tidally
dominated districts of WB, India
Fig.1.
Map showing the location of Ganges delta and the surrounding regions
Fig. 2.
Districts under different classes
of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
Fig. 3.
Colour image of the tidally
dominated and western abandoned part of the Ganges
delta
Fig. 4. Tidally dominated area under Ganges Delta in India Bangladesh
Fig. 5. Share of Tidally Dominated Area in Bangladesh
Fig. 6. Division-wise Tidally Dominated Areas in Bangladesh
Fig. 7. Drainage status in Bangaladesh
Fig. 8. Most affected areas by Sidr in Bangladesh
Fig. 9. Interaction matrix of factors influencing
stability and livelihood in the fragile ecosystem
Fig. 10. Average river salinity in Indian
Sundarbans
Fig. 11. The increasing salinity trends in
Bangladesh Sundarbans
Fig. 12. Water salinity isohalines in
Bangladesh Sundarbans
Fig. 13. Hydrology of Tidally Dominated
Districts of West Bengal , India
Fig. 14. Aquifers in Tidally dominated
districts of West Bengal, India
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of aquifer
stratigraphy in the coastal zone of Bangladesh
Fig. 16. Arsenic affected areas in Tidally
Dominated Districts of West Bengal, India
Fig. 17. Smoothed map of arsenic
concentrations in ground waters in Bangladesh
Fig. 18. Distribution of manganese In ground
waters in Bangladesh
Fig. 19. Soil pH and salinity status in South
& North 24 Parganas
Fig. 20. Soil salinity status in South &
North 24 Parganas
Fig. 21. Soil salinity status in Bangladesh
Fig. 22. Percent distribution of size of
operational holdings in Bangladesh
Fig. 23. Percent distribution of size-wise
operational holdings in WB (India
Fig. 24. Status of Gross Cropped Area and
Cropping Intensity in Tidally Dominated Districts of
Fig. 25. Status of cultivated area in Tidally
Dominated Districts of Bangladesh
Fig. 26.
Area contribution of major crops by Tidally Dominated Districts of Bangladesh
Fig. 27. Occurrence
of flood in Bangladesh India
Fig. 28. Drainage improvement through OFR in
lowland rice field in Sundarbans ,
India
Fig. 29. District-wise total inland fish
production in TDA of Bangladesh
Fig. 30. A digramatic model of direct and
indirect effects of shrimp farming
Acronyms
and Definitions
Acronyms
ADPC: Asian
Disaster Preparedness Centre
BAU: Business-as-Usual
ET: Evaop-transpiration
CFAB: Climate
Forecast Application in Bangladesh
CLSAP: Comprehensive
Location Specific Agricultural Plan
CPUE: Catch
per Unit Effort
CSSRI: Central
Soil Salinity Research Institute
ECMWF:
European Centre for Medium Range
EWD: Environmental
Water Demand
FFWC: Flood
Forecast and Warning Centre
GCA: Gross Cropped Area
GDP: Gross
Domestic Product
ICAR: Indian
Council of Agricultural Research
Ka
BP: Thousand years before present
LGM: Last
Glacial Maximum
NCIWRD: National Commission of Integrated Water
Resource Development
NSDP: Net State
OFR: On-farm
Reservoir
PPP: Public
Private Partnership
PUSWR:
Potentially utilizable surface water
resource
SHG: Self
Help Group
TD: Tidal dominated
TDA: Tidal
dominated area
TDGD: Tidal
dominated Ganges delta
USAID: United
States Agency for International Development
WP: Crop water productivity
Definitions
Aman This is winter rice (as per
harvesting time) and is the main rice crop (photo-
sensitive), grown
mostly as rainfed based on southwest monsoon (kharif)
between July/ August and
October/ November/ December, and is known as
aman rice in West Bengal (India Bangladesh
Aus This
is pre-kharif rice, and is known as aus in West Bengal
(India
Boro This is summer photo-insensitive
rice (as per harvesting time) grown as
irrigated between
January/ February and March/ April, and is known as boro
in West Bengal
(India Bangladesh
Bund An embankment or dike mainly
used for flood protection, and known as bund
In India Bangladesh
Crop
water: Defined quantitatively as
"the physical mass of production or economic value
productivity of
production measured against gross inflows, net inflow, depleted
water,
process depleted water, or available water".
Kharif: The season
of monsoon ending up in Autumn, and is known as kharif in India
Rupee Basic monetary unit of India Pakistan Nepal Sri Lanka
Mauritus
Taka Basic monetary unit of Bangladesh
Executive Summary
The Ganges delta is one of the
largest deltas in the world. The rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra flow into the
delta from the northwest and the north. The landforms of the Bengal lowland,
including the Ganges or Bengal delta and its surrounding region, consist of
Pleistocene uplands and alluvial lowlands. The Ganges delta is distributed over
Bangladesh and a major part of West Bengal (India). At the extreme south, the
delta is about 360 km wide along the Bay of Bengal, and in terms of area about
80,000 km2 distributed over the two countries classifying Ganges
delta into Moribund delta, Mature delta, Tidally active delta and Active delta.
Throughout Pleistocene times, the site of active deltaic sedimentation has switched due
either to geological factors combined with changes in the river hydrology, the
latter particularly in the recent times owing mainly to human interventions,
thereby affecting adversely the entire process of livelihood system including
agriculture, aquaculture, and all related spheres by and large in the entire
lower Ganges delta. Now, the Ganges
merges with the Brahmaputra, and the site of active sedimentation lies to the
east as the tidally dominated Ganges
delta (TDGD), being the main domain of this paper, under the Ganges/ Brahmaputra river delta. Many of the former riverine channels act now
as tidal channels (also as drainage networks), while the former saline
lands have been converted to various agricultural and marine farming practices,
and are under various stages of reclamation. Originally, this surface formed an
extreme expanse of mangrove forests comprising major parts of the Sundarbans.
The TDGD including the Sundarbans are distributed over Bangladesh and India,
area under the former being higher.
With increasing population
pressure and other anthropological factors along with trend of seawater rise
vis-Ã -vis global warming and various other factors majority of the areas remain
highly fragile in nature and ecologically unsustainable. Agricultural
productivity including aquaculture, being the principal areas of occupation of
the majority, are generally poor because of various constraints, which, along
with ecological vulnerability, are responsible for abject poverty and uncertain
livelihood of the local inhabitants in this ecosystem. There is need for a
holistic look at the entire problem in order to seek for future road map for
higher and sustainable productivity in agriculture and aquaculture and improved
livelihood status of this contiguous area stretching over two countries with
almost similar problems. It should be remembered that the future steps for
improvement should be of mutual benefit to both the countries, more
specifically the TDGD, acting as a sink of the entire river system originating
thousands of miles upstream, with full regards to hydrology as well as the
geo-political factors over the entire course of flow. Unfortunately, this has
not happened in the past in full spirit making both countries suffer so far.
The paper delineates the areas
under TDGD covering 11 districts in Bangladesh and 3 districts in West Bengal
(India), and discusses their socio-economic status in terms of relevant
parameters, as well as contribution of both agriculture and aquaculture to the
country’s gross domestic product. An in-depth analyses have been made, in the
field of agriculture, on climate, soil, drainage and hydrology, flood, ground
water, and bio-diversity (including dominating mangrove species)
characteristics. Vulnerability of the TDGD, being mostly low lying, to
climate-induced disasters, has been highlighted rendering the areas as cyclone
and flood prone. Global warming, poor drainage and unfavourable hydrology,
apart from unethical human interventions, have made the situation worse
threatening the livelihood for the future. The present status and future
suggestions for improvement in crops, both for high yield and tolerance to soil
and water stress situations, cropping system, soil management, crop water
productivity, flood control and drainage have been discussed with reference to
TDGD. It has been recommended to practise the micro-watershed approach through
storing and recycling of excess water as an effective integrated water
management strategy for bringing more area under irrigation during dry season
and draining of excess water during rainy season in the otherwise
pre-dominantly monocropped area with rainfed rice. Land shaping and
construction of on-farm reservoir or use of derelict channels for community use
have been suggested for effective implementation of the technology. However,
integrated farming should be the ideal approach for higher crop water
productivity relevant particularly for the water- and other input-scarce areas like
TDGD. It has been suggested to work out the future availability and demand for
water under different commodities for careful and long term planning of this
scarce commodity. From this point of view, the trend for increasing abstraction
of ground water for irrigation and urban use should be carefully studied from the
point of view of rate of recharge of the ground water and scope for intrusion
of saline ground water into coastal inlands with saline water. Limited
applications made so far in the lower Ganges delta on flood forecasting, which
could mitigate the sufferings substantially, have been highlighted. In the same
context, necessity for rapid and efficient network for early trans-continent
cyclone warning system needs no elaboration.
In the field of aquaculture,
scope for high remunerative return has been illustrated in the background of
socio-economic benchmarking and other characteristics described therein.
Different farming practices, both for sweet and saline water, have been
discussed highlighting the scope for integrated practice for
agriculture-aquaculture as well as that for marine aquaculture in the TDGD. It
has been stressed to monitor critically the impact of brackish water
aquaculture on the ecology of the area, in general, including the mangrove
swamps due to saline water use.
Following a SWOT analyses detailed
projections on nature of impacts have been made of specific interventions in
the field of agriculture, aquaculture, their combined applications, non-farm/
allied activities, and integrated TDGD policy. In consequence to these analyses
future road map has been suggested for formulation of projects/ sub-projects in
five theme areas for TDGD, namely (1) Agriculture: Intensification,
diversification and value addition in
sustainable agriculture, (2)
Aquaculture: Expansion, intensification and diversification of sustainable
aquaculture, (3) Integrated system with agriculture and aquaculture, (4) Biodiversity and ecological
conservation, and (5) Development of mitigation measures for disaster
management. A list of important R&D agencies in both
countries for working out programme in partnership mode for implementation of
the projections outlined has also been illustrated.
1 Ganges
delta
1.1 Landforms and regional settings
The Ganges
delta is one of the largest deltas in the world. The rivers Ganges
and Brahmaputra flow into the delta from the
northwest and the north. The landforms of the Bengal
lowland, including the Ganges or Bengal delta and its surrounding region, consist of
Pleistocene uplands and alluvial lowlands. The Pleistocene uplands in the
northwest of the lowland are called the Barind Tract and in the central part,
Madhupur Jungle (Morgan and MacIntire, 1959) (Fig.1). The Ganges delta is
located to the south of Barind Tract and Madhupur Jungle. The Ganges
delta is distributed over Bangladesh West Bengal (India Bay of
Bengal , and in terms of area about 80,000 km2
distributed over the two countries (Fig.
2).
The northwestern part of the delta
has broad and few natural levees, and was termed as Moribund delta by Bagchi
(1944). The central part of the Ganges delta
has large natural levees and broad flood basins. The southern part of the
delta, facing the Bay of Bengal , is tidally
active lowland with numerous tidal creeks. The region around the Meghna (mouth
of the Ganges and Brahmaputra )
is an Active Delta, where landforms are unstable owing the floods and impact of
cyclones (Umitsu, 1993). Similar description may be found in Islam and Gnauck
(2008) classifying Ganges delta into Moribund
delta, Mature delta, Tidally active delta and Active delta (Fig. 2). The area
under Moribund 
delta covers
an area of
about 18,000 km2. The
rivers in this
delta do not transport enough water and silt, even during flood, and
being confined within high levees, are not normally in a position to inundate
the entire area. The Mature delta covers about 31,500 km2 area. The
eastern Active delta covers an area of about 16,500 km2 area, about
300 km long in the north-south direction and about 100 km and 130 km wide in
the upper and middle reaches, respectively. The southwestern part of the delta,
which is also the southern part of Sundarbans, is entirely coastal in nature
and termed as Tidally active delta covering an area of about 13,500 km2
(Islam and Gnauck, 2008).
delta covers
an area of
about 18,000 km2. The
rivers in this
delta do not transport enough water and silt, even during flood, and
being confined within high levees, are not normally in a position to inundate
the entire area. The Mature delta covers about 31,500 km2 area. The
eastern Active delta covers an area of about 16,500 km2 area, about
300 km long in the north-south direction and about 100 km and 130 km wide in
the upper and middle reaches, respectively. The southwestern part of the delta,
which is also the southern part of Sundarbans, is entirely coastal in nature
and termed as Tidally active delta covering an area of about 13,500 km2
(Islam and Gnauck, 2008). 
|
Fig. 2. Districts under
different classes of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
(Source: Banglapedia, http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/B_0404.htm)
1.1.1 Tidally
dominated Ganges
delta
1.1.1.1Nature of formation and general features
Throughout Pleistocene times, the
site of active deltaic sedimentation
has switched. Now, the Ganges
merges with the Brahmaputra , and the site of
active sedimentation lies to the east as the tidally
dominated part of the Ganges /
Brahmaputra river delta (Fig.
3). Numerous channel scars
dominate the surface
morphology when viewed
through satellite imageries. These scars are apparently remnants of
former courses of the Ganges
river and many of its distributaries. Many of these former riverine channels
are now tidally dominated. The Hugli
and Pusar Rivers
 |
 |
Fig. 3. Colour image of the
tidally dominated and western abandoned part of the Ganges delta (A, abandoned
channel scars; B, former riverine channels; C, well-defined meander belts
display excellent examples of "ridge and swale" topography; D, Oxbow
lakes as remnant meander channels that have been isolated by river cutoffs; E,
reclaimed land retaining some of the general morphology of the original deltaic channel scars; F &G, mangrove
swamps with dendritic and intricate tidal drainage channels; H, larger tidal
channels form bell-shaped estuaries that are quite deep, and many of them serve
as major transport arteries; I, broad mud and silt flats bordering the coast) (Source: NASA, 2008)
Thus, the areas under Tidally Active
Delta and those partly under Active delta (Fig. 2) corresponding broadly
to the areas covering E to I in Fig. 3
are specifically of interest in this paper owing to their characteristically
different settings across the two countries presenting a contrastingly
different ecosystem than the rest in the traditional definition of Ganges delta
in terms of hydrological behaviour of the rivers including sedimentation
pattern as well as of the sea-underground water interface, flooding behaviour,
sources of salinization and contamination of soil and underground water,
characteristics of land mostly lowlands with impeded drainage and poor quality
surface and underground water vis-Ã -vis estuarine system predominant in these
areas, flora and fauna including aquatic specimens, forest especially the
mangrove vegetation, agriculture and aquaculture including shrimp cultivation,
in case of the former. These parts
of the delta, in case of the former, are differentiated from alluvial uplands in that these have a shallow slope,
contain fine-grained sediment (sand
and mud), and always flow into a body of water.
Alluvial plains, on the other hand,
located north to northwest to this part, are relatively steep, have more
coarse-grained sediments, and are dominated by large floods flowing either onto a land surface or into a body of
water. Significantly, increasing population pressure and other
anthropological factors along with trend of seawater rise vis-Ã -vis global warming
and various other factors render majority of the former areas highly fragile in
nature and tend to make it ecologically unsustainable. Agricultural
productivity including aquaculture, being the principal areas of occupation of
the majority, in case of the former, are generally poor because of various
constraints mentioned above, which, along with ecological vulnerability, are
responsible for abject poverty and uncertain livelihood of the local
inhabitants in this ecosystem. We find it logical to redefine and demarcate
this area (Fig. 4 and Table 1) and
prefer to call it as “Tidally dominated” delta, and base the discussion
hereinafter on this part.
1.1.1.2 Purposes
of this study
1.
To delineate the Tidally Dominated Ganges Delta and discuss
various characteristics acting as constraints towards poor productivity
2.
To review the present status of the various activities under agriculture
and aquaculture along with benchmarking of the socio-economic status of the
inhabitants factored by several constraints, technological, social,
institutional or infrastructural in nature, in the Tidally Dominated Ganges
Delta, and suggest means to alleviate the constraints in order to up-scale rural
economy and mitigate poverty levels
3.
To identify intervention plans on integrated approach to
agriculture and aquaculture, which should improve socio-economic status of the
inhabitants besides being ecologically stable
4.
To prioritize thematic areas for efficient use of salt and flood
prone areas in the Tidally Dominated Ganges Delta leading to improved and
sustainable rural livelihood
Fig. 4. Tidally dominated
area under Ganges Delta in India Bangladesh
1.1.1.3 Geographical
locations and distributions
The TDGD across the two countries
(Fig. 4) lies between latitude 21˚
31' and 22˚ 5' N and longitude 88˚05' E and 91˚ 6' E covering 11 districts in Bangladesh and 3 in
India.Bangladesh has been divided into
6 Division and 64 Districts for administrative purpose. These are Barisal Dhaka (17 distrcts), Khulna Bangladesh Barisal Barisal Khulna Bangladesh Bangladesh
|
|
||||
The tidally dominated districts of WB (India West Bengal accounted for
26.04 % of total population of West Bengal
(8.02 million). Therefore, the TDGD of Bangladesh and India
The detailed geographical setting of each
district under TDGD along with population and relevant climate data are given
in Table 1. TDGD regions belong to the broad
geographical unit alluvial and deltaic plain. The major physiographical
sub-divisions of the region in India India West Bengal . These coastal
areas occur in the form of lowlying marshy land because of its elevation below
high tide mark (average being 2-3 m above mean sea level, few areas even below
sesystem meander severely in its confluence with the Bay
of Bengal and are divided into number of branches, enclosing and
intersecting delta. This region is
traversed by a number of moribund rivers, which are primarily spill channels of
Hugli river. The major rivers in thisa level).
In the southern part of the Ganges delta in India, the river Hugli with
its tributary region are Hugli, Ichhamati, Raimangal, Yamuna, Vidyadhari,
Kalindi, Matla, Vidya, Gosaba, Thakuran, Saptamukhi and Herobhanga, and are mostly tidal in nature. The mean range of tide of Hugli river
during spring (2009) at Sagar and Daimond Harbour of South 24 Parganas district
is 4.30 m and 5.00 m, respectively (Director of Marine, Port of Kolkata
Table 1. Geographical settings of the TDGD across India
and Bangladesh along with relevant data on
population and climate
|
Division/ State
|
District
|
Geographical setting
|
Area (sq km)
(2001)
|
Population (‘000’)
(Density : per sq
km) (2001)
|
Climate
|
|
|
Rain-fall
(mm)
|
Max/Min Temp (˚C)
|
|||||
|
|
||||||
|
Barisal
|
Barguna
|
89˚00’-90˚20’E
Long; 22˚00’-22˚30’N Lat
|
1831
|
848
(Density:
463)
|
2506
|
33.0/12.1
|
|
Patuakhali
|
90˚05’-90˚40’E
Long; 21˚50’-22˚40’N Lat
|
3205
|
1461
(Density: 456)
|
2506
|
33.3/12.1
|
|
|
Bhola
|
90˚30’-91˚00’E
Long; 21˚55’-22˚55’N Lat
|
3403
|
1703
(Density: 500)
|
2360
|
32.7/11.6
|
|
|
Jhalokati
|
90˚05’-90˚25’E
Long; 22˚20’-22˚50’N Lat
|
758
|
695
(Density: 917)
|
2506
|
33.3/12.1
|
|
|
Pirozpur
|
89˚55’-90˚15’E
Long; 22˚10’-22˚50’N Lat
|
1308
|
1111
(Density:
849)
|
1710
|
35.5/12.5
|
|
|
|
90˚00’-90˚45’E
Long; 22˚30’-23˚00’N Lat
|
2791
|
2356
(Density: 844)
|
1955
|
35.1/12.1
|
|
|
|
Noakhali
|
91˚00’-91˚30’E
Long; 22˚10’-23˚00N Lat
|
3601
|
2577
(Density:
716)
|
3302
|
34.3/14.4
|
|
Lakhmipur
|
90˚40’-91˚00’E
Long; 22˚30’-23˚10’N Lat
|
1456
|
1490
(Density: 1,023)
|
3302
|
34.3/14.4
|
|
|
|
Bagerhat
|
89˚30’-90˚00’E
Long; 21˚45’-23˚00’N Lat
|
3959
|
1549
(Density: 391)
|
1710
|
33.5/12.5
|
|
|
89˚15’-90˚00’E
Long; 21˚40’-23˚00’N Lat
|
4395
|
2379
(Density:
541)
|
1710
|
35.5/12.5
|
|
|
Satkhira
|
89˚00’-89˚20’E
Long; 21˚40’-22˚50’N Lat
|
3858
|
1865
(Density: 483)
|
1710
|
35.5./12.5
|
|
|
India
|
||||||
|
West Bengal
|
South
24-Parganas
|
89˚04’50”-88˚03’45”E Long; 22˚33’45”-21˚29’00”N Lat
|
9960
|
6907
(Density:
693)
|
1894
|
38/10
|
|
North
24-Parganas
|
89˚06’E Long;
22˚57’N Lat
|
4094
|
8934
(Density:
2182)
|
1427
|
39/9
|
|
|
Hugli
|
88˚30’15”-87˚30’20”E Long; 23˚01’20”-22˚39’32”N Lat
|
3149
|
5042
(Density:
1601)
|
1323
|
38/8
|
|
Sources: Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Govt. of West
Bengal, India (2007); Bangladesh
Meteological Department; Bangladesh Bureau of Sttatsitics (2008)
The deltaic
plains of Bangladesh is lowlying and subject to frequent flooding. Most elevation are less than 10 m above mean
sea level and elevation decreases towards south, where terrain is generally at
sea level. This plain is a part of the larger plain of Bengal which is
sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain.
Numerous rivers are flowing to south in this delta region. The major network of river is Padma-Ganges
river system which is divided into two sections: a 258 km segment, in which Ganges
extends from the western border of India Dhaka ; and a 126 km
segment, Padma, which runs from Ganges . Padma confluences to where it joins Meghna
river at Chandipur. It is the central
part of the deltaic river system in Bangladesh Bay of Bengal . Tidal and estuarine flood plains cover about
98 % of central area of Bangladesh Khulna Barisal Bangladesh Ganges
delta. Lowlying and flat topography
region as well as deposition of silt on river beds rather than in flood plains
region cause drainage congestion problem in tidally dominated Ganges
delta. This region, both in India Bangladesh
1.1.1.4 Climate
and
anthropological factors
|
The tidally dominated Ganges
delta has sub-tropical monsoon climate characterized by moderately warmer
temperatures, high rainfall and high humidity.
It has three district seasons:
hot, humid summer from March to June with occasional pre-monsoon shower
in the later part of the season; humid monsoon season from June to October; and
cool winter from October to March.
January is the coldest month and April is the hottest month in this
region. The max summer temperature and
minimum winter temperatures vary from 35.5 to 390C and 8-110C,
respectively (Table 1). The annual total rainfall varies from 1606 to
3302 mm (Table 1). Rainfall is received mostly from Southwest monsoon
and about 80% of the total annual rainfall occurs from July to
mid-September. The wind blows from South
to Southwest during summer, to Southwest during monsoon, and North to Northeast
during winter. Due to proximity of Bay of Bengal this TDGD frequently witnesses north-westerns
(March to May) and cyclonic storms (early summer and late monsoon season),
which cause huge damages by way of loss of lives infrastructures and properties.
During 1891 to 1989, South and North 24 Parganas districts in India India Bangladesh Bangladesh
The TDGD,
both in
|
In Bangladesh Bangladesh India Bangladesh Bay
of Bengal occasionally causes disaster in this delta region. The storm that produces surge also gives rise
to heavy rainfall in land, as a result this region is likely to suffer from
simultaneous occurrence of river flooding and storm surge.
The TDA of India and Bangladesh being
mostly coastal are thus subjected to high degree of risk due to climate as well
as anthropogenic and various other factors, as a result the areas very often
suffer from huge loss of human lives as well as other precious resources
rendering it highly fragile in nature (Fig.9).
The problem is further compounded due to climate change. The IPCC and many
other organizations predicted climate change threatening extreme events (e.g.,
storm, cyclone, sea level rise, flood, heavy rainfall, etc) likely to occur
even more frequently which may make the livelihood pattern more vulnerable in
coming future. IPCC has already demarcated TDA (Bangladesh India
Fig. 9. Interaction matrix of factors influencing
stability and livelihood in the fragile ecosystem
1.1.1.5 Hydrology and water
management
1.1.1.5.1 Neo-tectonic
movement
The TDA
is located at the tail end of Ganges basin.
Due to neo-tectonic movement during 16th to 18th century the Bengal basin had
tilted easterly along a hinge zone starting from Sagar (Indian Sundarbans) to
north of Malda (West Bengal, India), finally curving towards Dhaka
(Bangladesh). As a result of this, the flow of Ganges
river started coursing through the river Padma in Bangladesh Ganges
which formed huge network of creeks and channels within Sundarbans delta of India
1.1.1.5.2 Resuscitation of
the Ganges
The construction of a barrage
across the Ganga and diversion of water
towards the Bhagirathi was first suggested by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1853, following
which many other British engineers supported the idea although they were not
unanimous on the location of the construction. The construction located at
Farakka in West Bengal , known popularly by its
name, 12 km upstream of the diversion of the river into Hugli-Bhagirathi
flowing through India Bangladesh Bay
of Bengal - then started in 1962 and completed in 1971. The
hypothesis of arithmetic hydrology worked out in favour of the barrage was
subsequently proved too inadequate to bring about any positive impact either to
flush out sediment load to increase navigational prospect for the Kolkata Port Kolkata Port
The Indo-Bangladesh agreement
(1996), valid for 30 years, over the sharing of Ganga
water was based on the average discharge of the river during preceding last
four decades (1949-1988). There was little compatibility between computed flow
in 1977 and the actually available flow at Farakka after that, the reason being
that the lean season flow during the earlier decades much higher than what it
was later. In short, the treaty of 1996 was framed without any regard to the
projected demand of water in the Ganga basin
in the ensuing decades, thereby affecting both the countries. Colossal looses
are taking place in the Indian part as a regular feature due to erosion of
banks and flooding each year.
It thus should not be lost sight
of that the prospects of agriculture and allied activities and livelihood
security should depend upon geo-hydrology and, in turn, on the sedimentation
and hydrology in the TDGD. It is true that the dynamic equilibrium of the Ganga river and its tributaries have been largely
disturbed due to inadequate planning for the construction of the barrage.
Government of India Ganga .
Due to lack of turbulence caused
as a result of upstream flow surface water salinity values near estuarine month
is usually lower than in the inner estuary. There is reduction of water
salinity of river located at western part of Sundarbans (Fig.10) after
the commissioning of a Barrage on Ganges river
at Farakka (India Ganges
water appears to have reduced the dry season discharge of the Ganges
and Gorai, the latter being one of the distributaries of Ganges
that supplies water from Ganges to south west
region of Bangladesh
Fig. 10. Average river
salinity in Indian Sundarbans (Source: AR of CICFRI, 1997)
This reduction of discharge of Gorai river in Bangladesh
Fig. 11. The increasing salinity trends in Bangladesh
Fig. 12.
Water salinity isohalines in Bangladesh
Geological features: In Indian part of TDA
underground water occurs in
porous alluvial formation (Fig.
13) both under water table and confined conditions. The yield of the aquifer is about 150 m3 hr-1. Fresh
ground water bearing aquifer is occurring at varying depths ranging from 180 to
360 m bgl with the drilled depth of 600 m bgl.
The fresh groups of aquifers are sandwiched between saline / brackish
aquifers (Fig. 14). 
|
||||
|
||||
|
In the coastal area of Bangladesh,
geo-hydrological conditions vary considerably even with short distances. Ground
water, with a gradient of about 1:20000 flows from north to south having
localized outflow into rivers and ponds in the dry season and inflow into the aquifers
from surface water sources in the rainy season. The schematic diagram of
aquifer stratigraphy in the coastal zone of Bangladesh is shown in Fig. 15. Rahaman and Bhattacharya
(2006) while discussing on the Bengal Basin mentioned that it was dissected and
in-filled many times by the major rivers during Pleistocene times leading up to
the last glacial maximum (LGM) at 18 ka BP (ka BP = thousands years before
present) when sea level stood some 130 m lower than the present. The flooded
coastal plain and incised channels of Bangladesh
Pliocene to Holocene sediments are
extensively tapped to supply drinking water and the majority of irrigation and
industrial supplies. Aquifers below about 150 m have been intensively pumped
for municipal supply over a period of 20-30 years in towns such as Khulna Barisal
Salinity
intrusion thus has been found to increase either due to a decrease of fresh
water flow in the lower Meghna river during the dry season or due to further
penetration of tide into the river system. Intrusion may, however, be
aggravated by upstream withdrawal of water and the reducing size of
floodplains, besides by climatic change impacts like a decrease in dry season
rainfall and sea level rise.
Chemical
characteristics and arsenic contamination: In
India, the top saline/ brackish aquifer lies within the depth span of 20 m –
180 m with max depth of 320 m bgl in the extreme south. The shallow fresh water aquifers occurs in level
deposit within 50 m bgl in Baruipur - Sonarpur – Bhangar – Canning tract in South
24 Parganas district. The important
chemical types of ground water are Ca-Mg-HCO3 type for low
mineralized water in North 24 Parganas and Hugli districts and Na-HCO3 type in South 24 Parganas and Ca-Mg-Cl
in some isolated patches in delta
region. In general, Cl content in South
24 Parganas is high (< 1000 mgl-1) in upper aquifer (20 – 150 m
depth range) with specific conductance at high value (< 1500 dSm-1
at 250C). However, aquifers
at deeper depth (115 – 350 m) this district is relatively fresh and Cl content
is within permissible limit. Owing to the sub-marine and estuarine environment
in which sediments are deposited and also owing to saline water intrusion as a
result of proximity to the sea and tidal influence, the Cl content in upper
aquifer of South 24 Parganas district is at high level. The salinity in ground
water in this district in also higher (< 3000 µS cm-1 at 250c). 
The iron content in ground
|
water
in all the districts of India West
Bengal has been reported during 1980’s. The ground water of 29
blocks in 3 districts (North 24 Parganas – 19 blocks, South 24 Parganas– 9
blocks & Hugli – 1 block) in Indian part of the TDGD is affected by arsenic
(Fig. 16). In these areas, arsenic
content (< 0.01 – 2.0 mol-1) in ground water occurs in 20 m – 60 m
depth. However, high arsenic content below 60 m depth is also reported at few
locations.
In Bangladesh
The
ground water of Bangladesh is largely contaminated by arsenic. Out of 64 districts, the ground water of 61
districts at shallow aquifer is contaminated by arsenic exceeding safe limit (
0.05 mgl-1) for drinking purpose. The concentration of arsenic in
ground water is highly variable over short distance. In spite of extreme variability of arsenic at
a local scale, there are variable trends on a regional scale that relate
closely to geological control. The
regional variation of arsenic indicates worst-affected areas located in south
and southeast regions of Bangladesh
The concentration of arsenic varies in the
range of < 0.01-15mgl-1.
High arsenic concentration in ground water is mostly present in shallow
aquifer up to a depth of 70 m, while deeper
aquifers are free from arsenic contamination (Agarwal et.al.,
2000). Besides arsenic, iron and
manganese are present in high concentration in the ground water of
Bangladesh. The concentration of iron is
found upto 25 mgl-1. The
manganese content in ground water is presented in Fig. 18. The high concentration of boron in ground water is also
found in some higher salinity areas in Southern Bangladesh.
 |
 |
1.1.1.6 Soils
The soils of the tidally
dominated area under Ganges delta are
generally occupying deltaic geomorphic position and have developed on
alluvium. Taxonomically majority of the
soils in these areas are of the order of Entisols and Inceptisols. The soils
have Hyperthermic temperature and Aquic moisture regime. The region is having a
flat topography with elevation of about 1.5 – 12 m from mean sea level
(MSL). The soils are usually heavy
textured and texture varies from clay to silty loam. However, light textured soil i.e. sandy to sandy
loam soils are also found at places.
1.1.1.6.1 Acid sulphate soils
Soil reaction values (pH) in this
region varies generally from 6.0 – 8.5.
However, highly acidic soil (pH 4.0) is also found in patches mostly in
the Sundarbans region in this Ganges
delta. A thematic map sowing soil pH
status of surface soils in North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas districts
located in Indian portion of tidally dominated area of Ganges
delta is presented in Fig. 19.
The strong acidity of soil is developed due to oxidation of pyrite (FeS2)
and other oxidizing sulphidic materials present in the soil, termed as acid
sulphate soils. These soils are locally known as ‘Koimuro’ and ‘Kosh’ soil in India Bangladesh India
Fig. 19.
Soil pH and salinity status in South & North 24 Parganas (Source:
Bandyopadhyay et al., 2003)
Table 2.
Morphological, physical and physico-chemical characteristics of acid sulphate
soils
Pedon
: Deuli, P.S. Hingalganj, district North 24 Parganas
Soil
classification: Fine-loamy, mixed hyperthermic Sulfic Endoaquents
(a)
|
Horizon
|
Depth
(cm)
|
Colour (moist)
|
Tex-ture
|
Clay
(%)
|
pH
(1:2)
|
ECe
(dSm-1)
|
SAR
|
ESP
|
Org.C
(%)
|
|
|
Matrix
|
mottles
|
|||||||||
|
Ap
|
0-16
|
2.5Y
7/4
|
_
|
1
|
26
|
4.1
|
7.2
|
5.0
|
7.0
|
0.63
|
|
Bw1
|
16-66
|
5Y
6/1
|
_
|
1
|
26
|
5.5
|
6.4
|
5.6
|
8.9
|
0.56
|
|
Bw2
|
66-116
|
5Y
6/1
|
5Y5/6,m2p
|
cl
|
29
|
4.2
|
4.8
|
3.8
|
5.0
|
0.48
|
|
2C1
|
116-170
|
5Y
4/1
|
5Y4/4,f
2d
|
scl
|
24
|
3.3
|
8.2
|
4.2
|
6.2
|
0.46
|
|
2C2
|
170+
|
5Y
5/1
|
_
|
1
|
26
|
4.4
|
9.7
|
6.1
|
8.1
|
0.50
|
Special feature: Jarosite mottles
(b)
|
Horizon
|
Ionic composition
of saturation extract (
|
CEC
(c
mol (p+) kg-1)
|
Base
Sat.
(%)
|
||||||
|
Na+
|
K+
|
Ca2+
|
Mg2+
|
Cl-
|
SO42-
|
HCO3-
|
|||
|
Ap
|
51.7
|
3.1
|
12.9
|
69.0
|
21.6
|
114.5
|
2.1
|
21.3
|
63.2
|
|
Bw1
|
43.3
|
3.6
|
10.6
|
49.1
|
18.3
|
91.3
|
2.6
|
15.6
|
70.1
|
|
Bw2
|
28.3
|
2.6
|
8.3
|
28.9
|
18.3
|
53.1
|
2.1
|
16.8
|
65.0
|
|
2C1
|
46.7
|
0.3
|
21.2
|
93.3
|
19.9
|
167.7
|
2.1
|
23.1
|
59.3
|
|
2C2
|
53.1
|
5.3
|
21.6
|
56.8
|
33.2
|
107.9
|
2.1
|
12.9
|
68.2
|
(Source: Bandyopadhyay et al., 2003)
The acid sulphate soils in
Sundarbans areas are widely variable in organic C content with high value at
the surface because of deposition of organic matter and it decreases with
depth. In some areas high organic C at
lower depth indicates early deposition of organic matter in the soil. The CEC values ranges from 5 to 28 C mol kg-1
or more. The variation in CEC values is
related to variation in organic matter and clay content in soil. In general, exchangeable Mg+2 concentration is very high in the profile
compared to Ca+2 concentration, which suggests old marine deposits
and Ca+2 largely leached from the exchangeable complex. These soils
are low to medium in available N content, poor in available P content and high
in available K content. The highly
deficient available P content in acid sulphate soils is because of the high P
fixation capacity of the soil. High K
status in the soil is due to presence of K containing illitic materials and K
containing salts like KCl and K2SO4. Under highly acidic condition, Fe and Al are present
in toxic level. The high S content in
the soil is attributed to presence of sulphuric horizon within the soil
profile. These soils are generally poor
in Zn and Cu content.
1.1.1.6.2 Salt affected soils
|
Most of the tidally dominated areas under Ganges
delta are affected by salinity. The salinity development in the soils is
primarily attributed to tidal flooding, frequent
inundation of saline water from sea or river coupled with drainage congestion during
monsoon (June to October) and upward capillary movement of saline water from
brackish ground water located at shallow depth (usually around 1 m depth
throughout the year) during post-monsoon period. The salinity level is highly
variable due to seasonal changes. It may vary from 0.5 to 50 dSm-1
or more. It is highest in summer and
lowest in monsoon season. During
monsoon, the salinity levels in soils are within the safe limit due to leaching
and washing of salt through monsoon rains.
After monsoon, the salinity starts increasing due to upward capillary
movement of salt following evaporation. The salt distributions in soils of this
region of both India and Bangladesh are presented in Figs.20 &21. The soil salinity increases from northern to
southern part of this delta. In Indian
portion, it increases toward east. The
salts are dominated by Cl- and SO4 = of Na,
Mg, Ca and K. In general saline soils in
the tidally dominated areas are low in fertility status. They are low in available N content, low to
medium in available P content and high in available K content. Except Zn and
Cu, other micro-nutrients in the soils are generally high in status. The soil profile characteristics of saline
soils of eastern side of Sagar island in India Bangladesh Ganges delta are
presented in Table 4.
inundation of saline water from sea or river coupled with drainage congestion during
monsoon (June to October) and upward capillary movement of saline water from
brackish ground water located at shallow depth (usually around 1 m depth
throughout the year) during post-monsoon period. The salinity level is highly
variable due to seasonal changes. It may vary from 0.5 to 50 dSm-1
or more. It is highest in summer and
lowest in monsoon season. During
monsoon, the salinity levels in soils are within the safe limit due to leaching
and washing of salt through monsoon rains.
After monsoon, the salinity starts increasing due to upward capillary
movement of salt following evaporation. The salt distributions in soils of this
region of both India and Bangladesh are presented in Figs.20 &21. The soil salinity increases from northern to
southern part of this delta. In Indian
portion, it increases toward east. The
salts are dominated by Cl- and SO4 = of Na,
Mg, Ca and K. In general saline soils in
the tidally dominated areas are low in fertility status. They are low in available N content, low to
medium in available P content and high in available K content. Except Zn and
Cu, other micro-nutrients in the soils are generally high in status. The soil profile characteristics of saline
soils of eastern side of Sagar island in 
|
Table 3. Morphological, physical and physico-chemical characteristics of saline soils
Pedon
2: Kamalpur, P.S.Sagar Island
Soil
classification: Fine, mixed hyperthermic Vertic Endoaquents
(a)
|
Horizon
|
Depth
(cm)
|
Colour (moist)
|
Tex-ture
|
Clay
(%)
|
pH
(1:2)
|
ECe
(dSm-1)
|
SAR
|
ESP
|
Org.C
(%)
|
|
|
matrix
|
mottles
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
Ap
|
0-12
|
5Y 5/2
|
_
|
sicl
|
40
|
6.5
|
7.0
|
10.9
|
11.6
|
0.78
|
|
Bwg1
|
12-31
|
5Y 5/1
|
_
|
sic
|
44
|
7.8
|
7.5
|
10.5
|
14.7
|
0.37
|
|
Bwg2
|
31-88
|
5Y 5/1
|
10YR 6/8,c2p
|
sic
|
46
|
7.9
|
8.3
|
10.5
|
15.2
|
0.35
|
|
C1g
|
88-124
|
5Y 4/1
|
10YR 6/8,m2p
|
sicl
|
40
|
8.0
|
9.2
|
12.1
|
10.9
|
0.26
|
|
C2g
|
124-160
|
5Y 4/1
|
10YR 6/8.m2p
|
sicl
|
40
|
8.0
|
10.5
|
12.1
|
11.4
|
0.53
|
Special feature: Presence of cracks and
slicken-slide within 125 cm.
(b)
|
Horizon
|
Ionic composition
of saturation extract
(
|
CEC
(c
mol (p+) kg-1)
|
Base
Sat.
(%)
|
||||||
|
Na+
|
K+
|
Ca2+
|
Mg2+
|
Cl-
|
SO42-
|
HCO3-
|
|||
|
Ap
|
60.1
|
3.3
|
18.4
|
26.7
|
95.2
|
8.4
|
3.3
|
21.6
|
80.0
|
|
Bwg1
|
51.8
|
3.3
|
21.7
|
26.7
|
83.5
|
26.7
|
3.3
|
20.0
|
85.1
|
|
Bwg2
|
51.8
|
5.0
|
21.7
|
26.7
|
88.5
|
21.7
|
3.3
|
20.6
|
85.1
|
|
C1g
|
71.8
|
5.0
|
21.7
|
31.7
|
98.5
|
25.1
|
3.3
|
19.7
|
78.0
|
|
C2g
|
80.2
|
6.7
|
21.7
|
48.4
|
103.5
|
63.5
|
3.3
|
21.0
|
75.2
|
(Source: Bandyopadhyay et al., 2003)
Table 4. Agro-chemical characteristics of soils in some of the
coastal and offshore areas (saline belt) in Bangladesh
|
District
|
pH
|
OM
%
|
Total N %
|
CEC
me%
|
Na
me%
|
K
me%
|
Ca
me%
|
Mg
me%
|
P
ppm
|
Zn
ppm
|
Cu
ppm
|
|
6.2-8.4
|
1.8-2.2
|
0.9-0.3
|
14.2-25.5
|
0.5-0.6
|
0.2-1.2
|
6.3-16.2
|
2.8-11.4
|
12-24
|
0.1-0.8
|
0.08-
0.30
|
|
|
Khulna
|
6.2-7.9
|
0.1-0.3
|
0.1-0.3
|
18.2-40.6
|
1.6-33.3
|
0.3-1.0
|
8.3-22.5
|
2.6-18.3
|
8-36
|
Tr-0.8
|
Tr-0.20
|
|
Bagerhat
|
6.0-7.8
|
0.3-2.8
|
0.1-0.2
|
15.9-37.0
|
0.6-7.0
|
0.2-1.0
|
9.4-24.2
|
4.2-17.7
|
6-26
|
Tr-1.6
|
Tr-0.40
|
|
Patuakhali
|
5.0-7.8
|
0.1-1.0
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
0.2-0.6
|
2.7-7.5
|
1.6-6.6
|
10-28
|
0.2-0.8
|
0.06-0.39
|
|
Barguna
|
6.3-8.0
|
1.2-2.3
|
0.1-1.0
|
12.0-22.0
|
2.5-21.7
|
0.2-0.7
|
11.5-8.8
|
3.9-18.2
|
4-14
|
Tr-3.0
|
-
|
|
Bhola
|
6.3-8.0
|
0.4-7.1
|
0.1-0.2
|
11.8-26.0
|
0.6-3.4
|
0.1-0.4
|
7.2-20.8
|
2.0-9.5
|
8-30
|
Tr-1.4
|
Tr-
0.70
|
|
Noakhali
|
6.0-7.9
|
0.8-3.1
|
0.1-0.3
|
9.4-
19.5
|
0.4-39.0
|
0.1-0.5
|
5.3-12.4
|
2.3-9.5
|
8-24
|
Tr-1.8
|
Tr-0.70
|
Source: Haque
(2006)
1.1.1.7 Forestry/ Biodiversity
Sundarbans,
the world’s largest continuous block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest is
located in the TDGD region across India Bangladesh Holiday islands) and
rest areas are inhabited. The Bangladesh Sundarbans forest occupies parts of Khulna
The Sundarbans is very rich in
flora and fauna. Mangrove vegetation consists of numbers of trees and shrubs
growing on sheltered shores, tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and
barrier islands. They are physiologically adopted to salinity stress and
waterlogged anaerobic mud. The major mongrove specises in Sundarbans are Heritiera
fomes, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Griops decandra,
Xylocarpus spp., Excoecaria spp., Avicennia spp., Nypa
fruticans, Sonneralia spp., and Aegialitis spp. An the Indian Sundarbans receives less fresh
water inflow than its counterpart in Bangladesh
Sundarbans is home to many
different species of birds, mammals, insects, reptiles and fishes. The entire
forest is home to the famous Royal Bengal Tiger. Apart from the tiger other
mammals such as fishing eats, macaques, wild boar, common grey, mongoose, fox,
jungle cat, flying fox, bangolin, chital etc. are found in Sundarbans. A large number of fish and invertebrates are
found in Sundarbans as they utilize the food resources available in plenty in
the area since the primary productivity is high in mangrove system. Around 250 species of fish have been recorded
in the estuaries of Indian Sundarbans.
Few fish species use mangroves as permanent habitant, but numerous
marine specieses use mangrove as nursery ground. Marine fishes like Hilsa,
Pama, Sillaginopsis and Pollynemus updrive through the estuaries to breed in
fresh water conditions. Ariusp, Osteogeniosus spp., Polydoctyces spp., etc. enter the estuary to freed. Fresh water form of fish which migrate to
estuary for breeding include Catfish, Pangasius
spp., and eels. The Sundarbans forest plays an important role in environmental
and ecological processes. Mangrove plays
an essential role in sediment repository, stabilizes shorelines, a buffer
against cyclone, tidal waves and storm surges that are common in the area. Sundarbans
is rich in resources like forest, fish, wildlife and water. It provides livelihood and employment of
large section of people working as wood cutters, fisherman, honey and wax
collectors, grass, leaves and fuel wood collectors, and as employees in the
industries dependent on the forest resources like newsprint mill, hard board
mill, match factory, saw mills, fisheries and fish refrigerator plants, shrimp
farms, wood processing operators etc. Exports of dried fish, shrimps, crabs and
honey brings substantial foreign exchange. Sundarbans offer scenic beauty for
adventure and eco-tourism.
2
Present status in research and development, socio-economic benchmarking
and means to improve productivity
2.1 Contribution of agriculture to GDP
The economy of TDGD is almost
entirely dependent upon agriculture and allied activities since these influence
the livelihoods of the majority of rural inhabitants in both these countries.
The GDP of Bangladesh has been
estimated to be 6149.32 billion Taka during 2008-09. The GDP growth rate of Bangladesh
Table
5. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Bangladesh
|
Sector
|
2004-05
|
2006-07
|
2007-08
|
2008-09
|
|
Crops & Horticulture
|
414819
|
524676
|
605784
|
667091
|
|
Animal farming
|
86798
|
107803
|
121182
|
137264
|
|
Forestry related service
|
60057
|
68763
|
75049
|
81660
|
|
Agriculture total
|
561674
|
701242
|
802015
|
886015
|
|
Fishing
|
154564
|
177827
|
197901
|
218138
|
|
Agriculture and fishery
|
716238
|
879069
|
999916
|
1104153
|
|
|
3707070
|
4724769
|
5458224
|
6149432
|
|
% share of agriculture
|
15.15
|
14.84
|
14.69
|
14.41
|
|
%
share of fisheries to
|
4.17
|
3.76
|
3.63
|
3.55
|
|
%
share of animal to agri & fishery
|
12.12
|
12.26
|
12.12
|
12.43
|
|
% share of fisheries to agri &
fisheries
|
21.58
|
20.23
|
19.79
|
19.76
|
|
Growth rate (current prices)
|
11.53
|
13.65
|
15.52
|
12.66
|
|
Growth rate (constant prices)
|
5.96
|
6.43
|
6.19
|
5.88
|
Source: Bangladesh
The TD districts were contributing around a
quarter of NSDP of West Bengal. Within the TD districts 24 Parganas (N) alone
was contributing around 10 % of state’s NSDP and other two districts, South 24
Parganas (S) and Hugli were contributing around 7 % each. Overall the
contribution of agriculture to NSDP has been experienced to be in declining
state. The estimation indicated that the share of agriculture to total NSDP of
West Bengal was marginally over 30 % during 1993-94, which declined to 25 %
during 1999-00, and further declined to 21 % during 2003-04. Declining trend in
agriculture’s share to NSDP is mainly due to income rise from other sources
(manufactured and service sector), which is a positive indication for economic
transformation for the state. However, the share of people dependent on
agriculture should also decline simultaneously.
Contribution of forestry to total NSDP has been very meager (less than 1
%) during preceding decade. Fishery’s contribution to NSDP also indicated a
declining trend from 3.68 % in 1993-94 to 2.96 % during 1999-00 and further
declined to 2.74 %. Although fishery’s contribution to state’s NSDP was
observed to be declining (from 2.96 % to 2.74 % during 1999-00 to 2003-04) this
sector (fishery) has been observed to be most promising under the TD districts
of West Bengal . In 24 Parganas (N & S)
districts the share of fishery sector has shown increasing trend from 6.78 %
& 2.51 % to 7.23 % & 4 % under 24 Parganas (S) and 24 Parganas (N),
respectively during the period. However, the share of forestry sector has been
accounted for less than one percent during the same period of time (1999-00 and
2003-04) (Tables 6&7).
|
Table 7. Percent
contribution of NSDP of
|
|||
|
District
|
1993-94
|
1999-00
|
2003-04
(P)
|
|
Hugli
|
7.3
|
7.07
|
6.98
|
|
24 Parganas (N)
|
10.35
|
9.69
|
9.15
|
|
24 Parganas (S)
|
7.73
|
7.37
|
7.65
|
|
TDA of WB
|
25.38
|
24.13
|
23.78
|
|
West Bengal
|
100
(48398)
|
100
(73528)
|
100
(96478)
|
|
Source: Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics
(2006), Govt. of
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate total in Rs.
crore (million X 101)
|
|||
|
Table 6. Percent distribution
of NSDP of
|
|||
|
Industry
|
1993-94
|
1999-00
|
2003-04 (P)
|
|
Agriculture
|
30.08
|
25.19
|
21.42
|
|
Forestry
|
0.94
|
0.7
|
0.58
|
|
Fishery
|
3.68
|
2.96
|
2.74
|
|
Total
|
100
(48398)
|
100
(73528)
|
100
(96478)
|
|
Source: Bureau of Applied Economics and
Statistics (2006), Govt. of West Bengal
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate total
in Rs crore (million X 101), based on 93-94 prices
|
|||
2.1.1 Socio-economic benchmarking in agricultural
sector
2.1.1.1
Household characteristics and trend
As per the agricultural census of
2008, total number of households in Bangladesh Bangladesh Barisal Khulna Bangladesh
In TD districts of West
Bengal , majority (84 %) of the population dwell in rural areas
under 24 Parganas (S) district. The rural population under Hugli and 24 Parganas
(N) has been calculated to be 56 % and 46%, respectively. Around 37 % of the
total population are active workers and rest (67 %) has been categorised as
non-workers or dependent under Hugli district. Similarly, nearly 33 % of the
total population has been estimated to be active workers in other two districts. Within
the working categories around 10-16 per cent has been observed to be
engaged in cultivation practices. Nearly one quarter of workers were engaged as
agricultural labourers under both Hugli & 24 Parganas (S) districts. The
share of agricultural labourers to total labourers were much less in 24 Parganas
(N) district which accounted for 14 % only.
2.1.1.2 Size of farm holdings
The operational
holding size in TD districts of
|
In West Bengal
the size classification is followed as marginal (<1 and="" ha="" large="" medium="" semi-medium="" small=""> 10 ha). This
classification is different from Bangladesh where the categories are marginal:
0.02 - 0.20 ha, small: 0.2 – 1.0 ha, medium: 1.0 – 3.0 ha, and large: 3.0 ha
and above (Fig.23).
|
Bangladesh as a country is dominated by the small (0.02 -1.0 ha)
and Marginal (0.02- 0.2 ha) categories of farm holdings. Merely half (49.85 %)
of farm holdings belong to small holdings, followed by marginal holdings (38.63
%), medium holdings (10.34 %) and large holdings (1.17 %), while existence of
landless farmer are also quite prevalent accounting for 14.03 %. The perusal of
size-wise classification of farm holdings in the districts under TDGD indicate
that marginal holdings dominate followed by small holdings which is contrast to
the scenario for Bangladesh Khulna
The operational holding size in
TD districts of West Bengal (India
2.1.1.3 Status of
operational area
The TDGD accounted for 16.31 % of total
operational holdings of Bangladesh Khulna Bangladesh
The TDGD of West Bengal (India West Bengal .
2.1.1.4 Economic status
The
TDGD of Bangladesh and West Bengal India
The TDGD of Bangladesh is accounted for 14.50
% of total population of the country (124.35 million during 2001) (Bangladesh
Bureau of Statistics, 2009). Similarly, the TDGD of West Bengal (India India
2.1.2 Status in research and development
Agriculture in the delta region
is complex, diverse and risk prone. There is gross similarity in constraints
and production under TDGD across the two countries, and so should be the
remedies.
2..2.1 Cropping system, areas and productivity
levels
In India, the cropping pattern is
predominantly mono-cropped with low yield, growing traditional rice in almost
98 % of the area in monsoon season as no other crops is possible during the
period due to submergence of agricultural fields. The crop production in
monsoon season suffers from various adversities like heavy and intensive rain
resulting in deep waterlogging, periodical inundation by high tides, poor
surface and subsurface drainage, frequent cyclonic storms and
floods. Most of lands (about 80–90 %) in
the region remain fallow in other seasons because of high soil and water
salinity, and lack of good quality irrigation water. Areas under different
crops in the TDGD in India
Table 8.
Area, Production and Yield of crops under TDA in WB, India
|
Crops
|
Hugli
|
24 PARGANAS
(N)
|
24 PARGANAS
(S)
|
||||||
|
A
|
P
|
Y
|
A
|
P
|
Y
|
A
|
P
|
Y
|
|
|
Aus
|
7.1
|
18.1
|
2549
|
17.7
|
46.3
|
2616
|
8
|
18.2
|
2275
|
|
Aman
|
195.8
|
529.9
|
2706
|
170.7
|
407.8
|
2389
|
330.1
|
662.9
|
2008
|
|
Boro
|
96.3
|
298.8
|
3103
|
89.7
|
271.9
|
3031
|
77.0
|
230.0
|
2987
|
|
Total
Rice
|
299.2
|
846.8
|
2830
|
278.1
|
726.0
|
2611
|
415.1
|
911.1
|
2195
|
|
Total
Foodgrains
|
302.5
|
851.4
|
2815
|
298.7
|
750.7
|
2513
|
427.0
|
921.4
|
2158
|
|
Total
Fruits
|
11.89
|
158.3
|
13311
|
18.2
|
268.8
|
14759
|
8.3
|
142.3
|
17163
|
|
Total
Vegetables
|
52.99
|
634.0
|
11965
|
67.3
|
874.6
|
13004
|
66.7
|
818.6
|
12269
|
|
Total
oilseeds
|
35.2
|
39.9
|
1134
|
47.0
|
44.6
|
949
|
12.1
|
15.2
|
1256
|
|
Total
Miscellaneous crops
|
97.8
|
1069.0
|
10930
|
10.6
|
150.1
|
14160
|
5.7
|
68.2
|
11965
|
Source: Bureau
of Applied Economics and Statistics (2009)
A, Area in thousand ha; P, Production in 000
Metric Tonnes; Y, Yield in kg ha-1
In the tidally dominated region
in Bangladesh, rice, jute, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds, spices, vegetables and
fruits are grown but their contributions to cropping intensity vary
greatly. District-wise data of the areas
under cultivation of different crops as well as the cropping intensity under
TDGD are shown in Figs. 24, 25 & 26.
Transplanted aman rice (July –
December)- fallow is the dominant cropping pattern in the region. In high lands
and medium high lands of delta region transplanted local aman rice is the dominant crop, and in medium low lands broadcast
local aman rice is the dominant crop. Aus
rice (April – August)- transplanted aman
rice cropping pattern is found in some areas of the region. Winter crops such
as wheat, potato and vegetables are grown, but cover a small area (< 12%).
In Noakhali district this is practised with transplanted aman rice - winter cropping pattern. Adoption of HYVs of rice in
tidally dominated areas of Bangladesh Bangladesh
Fig. 24.
Status of Gross Cropped Area and Cropping Intensity in Tidally Dominated
Districts of Bangladesh Bangladesh
Districts of Lakshmipur and Bhola
are the more intensely cropped ones among the TD districts while Bagerhat and Khulna
Aman paddy is the predominating crop in TD districts as well in Bangladesh
Fig. 25.
Status of cultivated area in Tidally Dominated Districts of Bangladesh Bangladesh
Fig. 26.
Area contribution of major crops
by Tidally Dominated Districts of Bangladesh Bangladesh
TDA is contributing 28.15 % of
country’s aus paddy area. Nearly one-tenth (8.91 %) of GCA is under aus paddy at country level, whereas the
share is substantially higher in the TDA accounting for 17.47 % of GCA. Reverse
trend is, however, observed under the boro
paddy cultivation in which the share of TDA is only 6.54 % of country’s GCA. At
national level 30.92% of GCA is under boro
paddy, while it is only 14.08 % of GCA under TDA. Jute and sugarcane are the
other major crops under TD districts accounting for 3.51 % and 3.94 %, respectively of Bangladesh
Based on the estimated study
during 2007-08, the cultivation of boro
paddy was not observed to be well distributed across the TD districts in
Bngladesh. Areas under boro paddy
were concentrated in a few of TD districts namely, Bhola (7005 ha), Barisal Khulna Barisal
2.1.2.2 Improved crop varieties`
The productivity per unit area or
unit effort in tidally dominated region is much lower than that prevailing in India
2.1.2.3 Soil management
Soil Salinity in dry reason can
be controlled to some extent by covering
the soil surface with mulches or cover crop or ploughing of the soil surface.
In South and North 24 Parganas districts (India
Soils of the TDGD in India
2.1.2.4 Crop
water productivity (WP)
Crop water productivity is an
important index for assessment of the productivity status particularly in
water-stressed areas like the Ganges delta. Cai
and Sharma (2009) estimated the WP across the basin showing high variation for
rice crop, as an example, from as high as 1.51 kg m-3 in Indian
Punjab to as low as 0.5 kg m-3 worked out as average for Indian
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar through Dhaka in Bangladesh; the ET value, however, in
case of the latter group remains higher and yield lower suggesting the need for
improvement for both for higher WP. Similar should be the trend further east
for TDGD. Therefore, understanding of WP should have a significant implication
for sustainable development planning for the TDGD.
2.1.2.5
Water demand and availability
Planning for water
resources development in a basin requires careful assessment of the available
water resources and reasonable needs of the basin in foreseeable future for
various purposes such as drinking, irrigation, hydro-power, industries,
navigation etc. Hydrological studies are carried out to assess the available
quantity of water in a given basin. No separate estimates
are available for the TDGD. Gross water demand is based for this ecosystem on
the irrigation requirement, salinity control in the estuaries, riverine
fisheries, inland navigation, fisheries and salinity control, and domestic and
industrial uses.
In
Bangladesh, however, where TDGD occupies a sizable area, there are about 7.56
Mha of cultivable land of which about 6.9 Mha of agricultural land can be
brought under irrigation by the year 2018. According to Ahmed of M/O Water
Resources, Bangladesh the total water requirement for March (water-scarce
period) has been estimated at 24,370 Mm3, of which agricultural
water management requires 59 % of the total, navigation, salinity control and
fisheries demand 40.7 %, and domestic and industrial need accounts for only 0.7
% of the total demand. Of these 77.2 % should be provided by surface water and
the balance by underground water. This model may be followed to work out
requirements for TDGD across both countries for efficient planning to achieve
higher WP for the future.
Amarsinghe et al. of
IWMI estimated total water demand scenario for India
According to Amarsinghe and co-workers many river basins will be
physically water-scarce by 2050. The degree of development of 10 river basins,
comprising 75 % of the total population, will be well over 60 % by 2050. These
water-scarce basins would have developed much of the potentially utilizable
water resources by the second quarter of this century. And the different
sectors in these basins would share a common water reallocation to meet the
increasing demand. Indeed, their Business-as-Usual (BAU) estimate projects
transfer of surface irrigation resources to domestic and industrial water use. Increased
ground water irrigation, according to them, would have severe detrimental
effects on many basins, since ground water abstraction ratio of many basins are
significantly high. Thus, given the current level of recharge, patterns of
groundwater use for these basins may not be sustainable. They commented that
the growth patterns under the BAU scenario might lead to regional water crises.
They estimated the ‘Potentially Utilizable Surface Water Resources (PUSWR)’, ‘Non-utilizable
PUSWR’, ‘Environmental Water Demand (EWD)’, and ‘EWD to be met from PUSWR’ for
Ganges as 250, 275, 152 and 0 BCM, as against 22, 607, 287 and 0 BCM for
Brahmaputra, and 76, 34, 18 and 0 for Godavari. The solutions towards increased
water use efficiency for these river basins, as suggested by them, are: a) to
increase crop productivity for every unit of water they use at present; b) to
increase potential groundwater supply through artificial recharge methods; c)
to concentrate on economic activities where the value of water is very high;
and d) to get water transfers from the water-rich basins.
2.1.2.6 Flood control and drainage
Owing to siltation in the river
beds water flows above the cultivable land during high tide in most of the
areas, but the latter is protected from inundation by earthen embankments, and
for draining of excess water from cultivable lands especially during low tides
manually operated one-way sluice gates are installed at strategic points.
Neither the embankments nor the sluices are scientifically designed in India
CSSRI recommended the following
designs based on the detailed analyses: (i) earthen embankments with 3:1 slope
on the river end and 2:1 slope at the country end with at least 1 m free board
above the high tide level, (ii) the embankments may be brick-pitched at the
river end to provide more stability, (iii) provision of suitable wind breaks
(plants identified) at the river end, and if possible, at the country end also,
(iv) the sluice gates should be better designed as per recommendations made and
operated much more frequently during low tides than what is normally done at
present for effective drainage, and (v) primary and secondary drains (earthen)
should be provided in the cultivable field as per design suggested to cater to
the needs for field drainage (drainage coefficient 37.5 mm per day) (Yadav et al., 1981). It is further emphasized
that there should provision of two rows of embankments with minimum 100–500 m
no-activity gap in between in areas likely to be breached more frequently than
others.
It is also advocated that in
order to prevent frequent breaching of the embankments, and keeping
particularly in mind the increasing frequency of storms observed world-wide in
the wake of global warming, the design of the embankments should be made with
minimum 500 year return period based on probability analyses of the weather
data for minimum 35 years.
2.1.2.7 Flood forecasting
The frequency of flood for both India Bangladesh
Fig. 27. Occurrence of flood in Bangladesh India
numerous methods developed for a
wide variety of situations, mostly other than Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, with
varying degrees of success in terms of practical application. For the
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin of Bangladesh, following the devastating flood years of
1998 during which 60% of Bangladesh was under water for a period of 3 months,
the Climate Forecast Applications in Bangladesh (CFAB) project was formed with
funding by USAID and NSF which eventually resulted in a joint project with the
European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF), the Asian
Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) and the Bangladesh Flood Forecasting and
Warning Centre (FFWC). The aim of CFAB was to develop innovative methods of
extending the warning of flooding in Bangladesh noting that there was a unique
problem: India provided no upstream discharge data to Bangladesh so that before
CFAB the maximum lead time of a forecast was that given by measuring river
discharge at the India-Bangladesh border: no lead-time at the border and 2 days
in the southern parts of the country. Given that the Brahmaputra
and Ganges catchment areas had to be regarded
as essentially unguaged, it was clear that innovative techniques had to be
developed. One of the basic criteria was that the system should provide
probabilistic forecasts in order for the Bangladeshis to assess risk. A
three-tier system was developed to allow strategic and tactical decisions to be
made for agricultural purposes and disaster mitigation: seasonal (1-6 months:
strategic), medium range (20-30 days: strategic/tactical) and short range (1-10
days: tactical). The system that has been developed brings together for the
first time operational meteorological forecasts (ensemble forecasts from
ECMWF), with satellite and discharge data and a suite of hydrological models.
In addition, with ADPC and FFWC an in-country forecast dispersion system was
developed that allowed a rapid dissemination. The system has proven to be rather
successful, especially in the short range. The flooding events of 2004 were
forecast with all forecasting tiers at the respective lead time. In particular,
the short-term forecasts picked 10 days ahead of time the double flooding peak.
In 2007, the system forecast the commencement and retreat of the July - August
floods allowing for the first time for the Bangladesh Disaster Management
Committee to act proactively rather than reactively. As a result, many
thousands of villagers were evacuated out of harms way. Most importantly, the
method developed may be used as a template for flood forecasting in similar
other areas like the Indian counterpart of the TDGD (Webster et al.,2007).
2.1.2.8 Integrated water
management: Micro-watershed or OFR approach
|
Table
9. Input use per hectare under OFR in Sundarbans delta, India
|
|||
|
Crop
|
Water use (ha cm)
|
Labour (days)
|
Net agril profit (Rs)
|
|
Rice
|
86
|
105
|
7280
|
|
Wheat
|
26
|
94
|
2910
|
|
Cotton
|
32
|
168
|
3275
|
|
Chilli
|
22
|
475
|
6550
|
|
Cucumber
|
30
|
294
|
4730
|
|
Watermelon
|
26
|
135
|
4000
|
|
Pumpkin
|
26
|
120
|
3275
|
|
Ridgegourd
|
26
|
135
|
2550
|
|
Source: Ambast et al., 1998
|
|||
There is tremendous scope of
harvesting the surplus rainwater during monsoon. Harvesting of a part of the rainwater is
sufficient for cultivation of multiple crops in dry months with proper
selection of crops (Ambast et al.,
1998) as observed in India. Micro-watershed or on-farm reservoir (OFR) approach
is probably a better option for such on-field water management along with flood
protection measures with the objective to harvest excess rainwater and
utilization of the same during long dry period, together called as integrated
water management approach with much better water-use efficiency and higher
profitability (Table 9). It has been
suggested, based on 35 year weather data analyses and detailed test conducted
at the farm as well as in the farmers fields, by CSSRI at Canning Town to (i)
create on-farm reservoir (pond, etc.) on over 20 % area within the total farm area, either
on individual farm area or preferably on community basis to store about 400 mm
estimated to be in excess of the optimal requirement for high yielding rainfed
rice crop during kharif, (ii) and
utilize the same for a second and partially a third crop during dry season, and
(iii) grow fishes in the OFR or pond and suitable plantation/ horticulture
crops on the bund around the pond for
additional benefit. A number of derelict channels, not in effective use at
present in Sundarbans, may be properly utilized after reshaping for community
OFR. For lowlying cultivated areas the
soils so excavated for creating OFR may be used to raise the remaining 80 %
farm area by a minimum 15 cm in height which will thus be conducive to high
yielding rice and other crops. The OFR, with or without bund, may preferably be of trapezoidal in shape, with length-width
ratio as 1:1, side slope as 1:1, and depth as 3 m. For other details of the
design and location of the OFR nomograph may be consulted. It has been
recorded, for which computer simulation model has also been prepared and tested
with sufficient success, that 45 and 75 % of the water depth above soil surface
during kharif season, can be reduced
for OFR with and without bund, respectively, thereby creating a much
better atmosphere for rainfed rice (Fig.
28). A complete crop calendar with
details of every important event for cultivation for different topo-sequences
has been prepared with scientific cultivation programme for each. Linear
programming approach has been followed to identify crops and related
cultivation practices depending upon nature of constraints, viz. water, labour,
etc. A user-friendly software has been prepared for detailed design
recommendations and cropping practices depending upon location-specific
conditions related to soil, weather, availability of water, choice of crops,
etc. for application to a wide variety of situations using this approach for
multiple cropping under rainfed conditions.
2.1.2.9 Land shaping
Simple land shaping techniques
like farm pond, deep furrow and high ridge, and shallow furrow and medium ridge
developed by CSSRI can be adopted in the tidally dominated delta for
cultivation of multiple crops round the year with harvested rainwater in ponds/
furrows along with integrated cultivation of crops and fishes (Bandyopadhyay,
2009). Land shaping techniques could create different types of land situation
like high land/ ridges and medium land where salinity and waterlogging may be
reduced providing the scope for cultivation of diverse and multiple crops
during monsoon and other seasons
2.2 Contribution of
aquaculture to GDP
Aquaculture, farming of fish and
other aquaculture organisms, plays an important role in the economy and
socio-cultural life of rural people next to agriculture in the TDGD, both in India Bangladesh
Fishery’s contribution NSDP of West Bengal
was observed to be declining from 2.96 %
to 2.74 % during 1999-00 to 2003-04 but this sector (fishery) has been observed
to be most promising under the TD districts of West Bengal. In both 24 Parganas
(N & S) districts the share of fishery sector has shown increasing trend
from 6.78 % & 2.51 % to 7.23 % & 4 % under 24 Pargans (S) and 24
Parganas (N), respectively during this period.
In India Bay of Bengal ,
total of 478,770 people are estimated to be engaged in fishing activities in.
Of these, 144,171 are active fishermen. A total of 282 villages belongs to the
fisher communities with high representation of schedule castes (one of the
backward communities of WB). Within the 24 Parganas (S) there are 2,500
mechanized boats and approximately 4,000 traditional craft. The total catch
from the Sundarbans is estimated to be 276,000 tonnes of which nearly 200,000
tonnes is from the inland fishery. The Bay of Bengal
fishery contributes an additional 185,000 tonnes, the bagnet fishery a further
28,000 tonnes, and the Hilsha fishery up to 9,000 tonnes. Fishing effort has
doubled in the last 15 years resulting in a decline in catch per unit effort
(CPUE) from 150-200 kg per haul to 58-65 kg per haul. Current expert opinion is
that stocks are heavily exploited. The collection of post-larval (PL) shrimp
has become a major income source with estimates of up to 400,000 collectors
involved within the Sundarbans. There are an estimated 1,500 to 3,000 million post-larval
(PL) shrimp collected per annum (Sundarbans Development Board).
2.2.1 Status in research
and development
Fish and fish products are among of the major
export earners for Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh
|
Table
10. Annual total production (tonnes) of fish in Bangladesh (2007-08)
|
|||
|
Particulars
|
|
TDA
|
%
share to
|
|
All
rivers
|
136812
|
83308
|
60.89
|
|
Pond
|
866049
|
181441
|
20.95
|
|
Shrimp/prawn
|
134715
|
104949
|
77.90
|
|
Flood
plain
|
819446
|
108470
|
13.24
|
|
Total
Inland
|
2065723
|
507967
|
24.59
|
Source: Department of Fisheries (2009)
|
Table
11. Fish production (tonnes) in tidally
dominated districts of WB,
|
||||||
|
District
|
Inland
Fish Production
|
Marine
Fish Production
|
||||
|
|
Fish
|
Prawn
|
Total
|
Fish
|
Prawn
|
Total
|
|
Hugli
|
67009
|
60
|
67069
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
North
24 pgs
|
130541
|
40516
|
171057
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
|
South
24 Pgs
|
180815
|
9900
|
190715
|
46989
|
6848
|
53837
|
|
Total
TDA
|
378365
|
50476
|
428841
|
46989
|
6848
|
53837
|
|
%
to
|
33.86
|
79.56
|
36.31
|
29.08
|
41.43
|
30.23
|
|
|
1117565
|
63440
|
1181005
|
161570
|
16528
|
178098
|
Source: West Bengal
State Marketing Board (2009) http://wbagrimarketingboard.gov.in/fisheries/fisheries.html
Fig. 29.
District-wise total inland fish production in TDA of Bangladesh
2.2.1.1
Different farming practices
Aquaculture practices can be
classified as extensive (does not involve feeding of the cultural organism),
semi-intensive (involves stimulating the growth of natural feed through
fertilization and supplementary feeding) and intensive (involves artificial
feedings) aquaculture. Various
aquaculture farming such as improved conventional aquaculture, rice-fish
farming, cage aquaculture, integrated prawn and shrimp farming, pen culture
have been developed and adopted in the different location of tidally dominated
delta. The conventional aquaculture which are practised in this region are
mostly extensive or semi-extensive that involves low level of inputs and
management resulting in lower yields. There is scope to intensification of
production of this system by increasing inputs and management as well as
integrating with agriculture, animal husbandry and horticulture. Rice-fish
farming has enormous potential in tidally dominated area to improve the
productivities of land which are practicing low yielding traditional
non-cropped rice. Rice-fish farming in
considered as semi-intensive in nature and requires no or little supplementary
food as rice fields are rich with diverse natural fish food organisms. Fish can
be grown simultaneously or alternatively with rice. In Indian Sundarbans
region, fish is grown simultaneously with rice during monsoon season. In Northwest
region of Bangladesh Bangladesh
Introduction and widespread
dissemination of fresh water prawn and
brackish water shrimp farming in tidally dominated Ganges
delta of Bangladesh Bangladesh Khulna Bangladesh Bangladesh Khulna
Brackish water aquaculture
development in tidally dominated North and South 24 Parganas districts of India
The brackish water aquaculture in
TDGD, both in India Bangladesh
Fig. 30. A digramatic model of direct and
indirect effects of shrimp farming (Raman et
al., 2004)
2.3 Integrated farming
approach
Integrated farming through
diversification of various enterprises, viz. aquaculture and livestock rearing,
besides agriculture, as well as allied activities like beekeeping, mushroom,
sericulture, floriculture, etc., has been found to be very successful for
enhancing the livelihood and ensuring security to farm income in India
3 SWOT analyses
Agriculture Sector
|
Aquaculture Sector
|
Strengths
|
Opportunities
|
|
|
|
Weaknesses
|
Threats
|
|
|
4 Possible technological and
institutional interventions and their impacts towards the development of
agriculture and aquaculture in Tidally Dominated Ganges
Delta
|
Technological
interventions
|
Impacts
|
Agriculture sector: Crop improvement
|
|
|
Introduction of HYVs of rice especially for
aus and boro rice
|
·
Enhancement of rice production during non-monsoon
period
·
Towards ensuring food security as food production is
not solely dependent on monsoon aman
rice which frequently suffers form cyclone and foods
|
|
Development
of improved salt, flood and submergence tolerant aus, aman and boro rice using biotechnological
technologies wherever necessary
|
·
Scope for improving rice production in the areas prone
to flooding and saline water ingress and, areas affected by salinity
|
|
Introduction
of high yielding and/ or low water requiring improved and salt tolerant crops
other than rice especially vegetable and fruit crops
|
·
Enhancement of non-staple foods production
·
Diversification of agriculture
·
Additional availability of non-staple foods to poor
people for better nutrition and good health
|
|
Development
and promotion of high value crops (horticulture, spices, aromatic and
medicinal plants) using biotechnological technologies wherever necessary, and
encouraging agribusiness enterprises
|
·
Enhancement of
economic growth by diversification of agriculture
·
Making agriculture competitive to global/ export
markets
·
Contract farming will reduce the risk of marketing and promote post-harvest management systems
·
More employment opportunities for labour from surplus
small and marginal households as it’s a labour intensive entrepreneurship
|
|
Promotion
of seed village and local nursery
|
·
Availability of quality seeds and planting materials to the farmers at
local levels
|
|
Participatory
variety selection (PVS)
|
·
Quick adoption of suitable crop varieties
|
|
Agriculture sector: Natural resource management
|
|
|
Promotion
of composting including vermi-composting, green manuring, INM, etc.
|
·
Improvement of productivity of crops and health of
degraded soils
|
|
Integrated
plant nutrient system
|
· Improvement of nutrient use efficiency
·
Ensuring improved soil health and sustainability in
yield with integrated nutrient management practices under adverse soil and
ecological conditions
|
|
Improved
soil and water management techniques for crop production in the salt affected
and flood prone areas
|
·
Enhancement of
crop water productivity to maximize
benefit under salt and waterlogged stress situations
·
Enhancement of resource use efficiencies
|
|
Introduction of land shaping techniques under low
land situations
|
·
Alleviation of the problems of water logging and
salinity build-up
·
Rain water harvesting to supply fresh irrigation water
during scarcity period
·
Converting land from mono-cropping to multiple cropping
round the year and enhancing crop production
·
Crop diversification and enhancing cropping intensity
|
|
Creation of Integrated water management facilities
through water harvesting in the pond on community basis
|
·
Introduction of OFR technology for creating water
resources and mitigation of drainage problems
·
Adoption of suitable flood protection and drainage
measures
·
Enhancement of cropping intensity and food production
·
Opportunities for inland fisheries and integrated
farming practices
|
|
Conjunctive use of poor quality water along with
harvested rain water
|
·
Multiple crop cultivation under scarcity of fresh water
situation
|
|
Construction of protective embankments
|
·
Prevention of frequent flooding and intrusion of saline
water in the agricultural fields during high tides
|
Drainage improvement by
proper leveling of crop fields and by installing appropriately designed
sluice gates, and their proper maintenance
|
·
Enhancement of crop production and improved crop
security
·
Sluice gates to drain out excess water and
simultaneously to prevent intrusion of saline water into the cultivated
fields
|
Desiltation of river,
estuaries and drainage channels
|
·
Improvement drainage and prevention from flooding of land
|
Promotion of modern
irrigation practices, viz. low volume cum high frequency methods
|
·
Enhancement of crop production with judicious and
conjunctive use of available water resources
|
|
Efficient
extension services with meaningful coordination within public sectors and
between public and private sectors
|
·
Delineation of areas for location-specific suitable
technologies
·
Rapid dissemination of technologies
·
Avoidance of repetition of works by different agencies
|
Aquaculture
|
|
|
Promotion
of profitable and sustainable fish production technology such as improved
conventional system, pen aquaculture, cage aquaculture, integrated prawn and
shrimp farming
|
·
Enhancement of fish production and income
·
Increase of foreign exchange earning
|
|
Mechanization
in inland and marine aquaculture
|
·
Improvement in fish productivity with higher return in
the long run
·
Modern communication support to warn fishers of adverse
weather forecast, and also inform them with nature and concentration of fish
population particularly during deep sea fishing
|
|
Promotion
of ornamental fish captive and under natural condition
|
·
Tremendous export potential
|
|
Promotion
of fisheries in drainage, irrigation channels and canals
|
·
Employment generation especially for women folks
|
|
Promotion
of shrimp farming in the area frequently flooded or prone to flooding by
saline tide waters
|
·
Enhancement of fish production from the areas
vulnerable to the natural hazards
|
|
Establishment
and promotion of feed factories and environment-friendly hatcheries
|
·
Production and supply of quality seeds and feeds in
time at local levels to the fisheries
·
Possibility to manufacture low cost feed at local level
|
|
Infrastructure
development and institutional support
|
·
Enhancement and development of aquaculture and with
long term sustainability
·
Providing adequate supports for inputs, credits and
marketing
|
|
Establishment
of aquaculture technological centers
|
·
Providing support for disease diagnosis, aquatic health
management, disease surveillance and water quality monitoring, information on
credits, availability of inputs and government policy, etc.
|
|
Better
extension services and modern approaches like adaptive learning
|
·
Providing technological know-how
·
Development of skills for practising profitable and
sustainable aquaculture
|
|
Integrated practices of agriculture and
aquaculture
|
|
|
Promotion
of simultaneous (preferably on community basis) or alternate types of
rice-fish farming suited to land situations
|
·
Production of rice and fish from same piece of land
·
Enhancement of
farm income, employment opportunities and security to livelihood
|
|
Integration
of vegetables and fruit with rice-fish farming with suitable land shaping
|
·
Round the year production
·
Enhancement farm income and security to livelihood
|
|
Establishment
of model integrated farm at block (India) and upzilla (Bangladesh) level
|
·
For acting as demonstration-cum-training center
·
Facilitatating easy adoption of integrated farming
system
|
Non-farm
activities/ alternative livelihood
|
|
|
Promotion
of alternate livelihood options such as beekeeping, mushroom cultivation,
vermi-composting, etc.
|
·
Employment opportunities for the small and marginal
households
·
Less dependence on mangrove forest areas for honey
·
Increased availability of organic manure for
agricultural crops
|
|
Conservation
and plantation of mangroves in Sundarbans
|
·
Maintaining the ecology of Sundarbans
·
Protection of the areas from natural hazards
·
Acting as carbon sinks
|
|
Promotion
of community nursery
|
·
Providing quality planting materials at lower cost for
plantation of mangroves and non-mangroves tree species
|
Promotion of plantation
along the canals, roads and river embankments and, agroforesty
|
·
Enhancement of the area under forest
·
Reduction of people’s dependency on Sundarbans forest
for fuel, fodder and woods
·
Protecting the areas from natural hazards through
bio-shield
|
Promotion of
cooperative culture, agribusiness, markets, stores, roads & transport,
linkages & communication (preferably through e-governance)
|
·
Each one of these activities will encourage farmers/ fishers to promote higher
productivity through better access to market, in particular, and thereby
generate more income with minimal or no help of the middlemen or brokers
|
|
Integrated TDGD
policy
|
|
|
Framing
a unified Integrated TDGD policy for TDGD areas common to both countries
|
·
A common policy
will ensure
implementation of the causes, like river
water flow and associated factors, conservation of forest, aquaculture practices, disaster management,
etc., common to both countries for their mutual benefits in a sustainable
manner
· Establishment of a
rapid and efficient disaster warning and management network throughout the
entire TDGD areas of both countries
|
5
Evolved issues or thematic plans and proposed action
related to work plan
Project
A: Crop improvement for higher and stable yield
Sub-Projects: Rice
·
Rice breeding, preferably through
biotechnological approach, to develop high yielding varieties that are rich in
nutrients to improve human nutrition, tolerance to adverse soil and water
situations
·
Maintenance and enriching of the
indigenous and exotic diverse genetic stock
·
Participatory variety selection for
easy adoption of suitable crop varieties
Sub-Projects: Non-rice crops
·
Identification of non-staple food
crops such as pulse, oil seeds, fruits, vegetable in the rice-based cropping
system
·
Development of crop varieties which
are having high yielding potentiality, tolerant to salinity, water stress,
disease and pest infestation, and low to medium water requiring
·
Maintenance of diverse indigenous and
exotic genetic stock
Project B: Sustainable natural
resource management
Sub-Projects
·
Mapping of potential areas for
agricultural and horticultural crops in relation to soil and water constraints
prevailing in the TDGD
·
Inventorization of soil and water
resources
·
Development of technologies for
maximizing crop water productivities and improved nutrient use efficiencies
through watershed approach
·
Establishing suitable farming system
models
Project C: Sustainable
water resource management
Sub-Projects
·
Mapping of ground water status,
withdrawal of ground water and possibilities of saline water contamination,
potential areas for recharging ground water and identification of suitable
methods for recharging
·
Working out of the future
time-targeted water demand for individual components under agriculture,
aquaculture, livestock, navigation, industrial, domestic, etc. and planning for
higher water productivity
·
Area specific plan for creation of
small irrigation facilities and participation of farmers for improving water
management practices and encouraging private sector to invest for irrigation
project
·
Formulation of adequate measures to
prevent pollution of water especially in the coastal areas from untreated
effluents from industries and sewage from cities.
·
Instead of implementing sea wall and
other hard structures, the potentiality for adoption of soft measures like
beach nourishment, shelter bed plantation, geo-textile measures and other
suitable measures to prevent river erosion and saline water ingress
·
Development of innovative and
integrated water management techniques for the areas
·
Developing appropriate drainage and
flood protection measures
Project D: Human linkage and market
access
Sub-Projects
·
Participation of private sector in
contract farming to reduce the risk of marketing
·
Reducing credit constraints by
providing micro-financing
·
Development of infrastructures like
appropriate markets, good network of roads, better telecommunication
·
Improving access to assets and
sustainable natural resource management for diversification of agriculture by
promoting community based rural development approaches through formation and
providing support to Self Help Groups (SHGs), village communities, water &
other user association, etc.
·
Growing planting materials available
by promoting local nurseries
·
Promotion of innovation through
research & development in public-private partnership (PPP) mode
·
Transition from subsistence to
commercial farming through technological interventions, diversification and
export promotion
·
Promotion of rural entrepreneurship
·
Comprehensive Location Specific
Agricultural Plan (CLSAP) for agricultural development by taking into account
the agro-climatic constraints, natural resource issues, farmers need and
choice, indigenous knowledge, technology availability and needs.
Project E: Technologies on value addition
Sub-Projects
- Post-harvest technologies
including homestead food preservation and value addition
- Seasonal availability of food
production is pronounced in TDGD:
- Research and development of
indigenous food preservation technology
- Suitable conservation methods to
storage
Projects/ Sub-Projects
- Enhancing the production of
aquaculture on environmentally and sustainable manner
- Promoting fish for good health
and nutrition and meeting the changing demands both in domestic and export
markets to make this sector globally competitive
- Identification of potential areas
for aquaculture and location-specific cultural systems and their impacts
on environment
- Development and extent of
profitable and sustainable production technology
- Fish can provide opportunities to
adapt to climate change. Aquaculture must move from seeking maximize yield
to increasing adaptive capacity. Research need to find innovative ways to
further improvement on the existing adaptability of fishers and
aquaculturists.
- Conservation of fisheries
resources and species diversification
- Diversification aquaculture by
integrating culture carps, catfish and prawn, culture of ornamental fish,
fresh water pearl culture, etc.
- Availability of quality feed and
seeds in time and space. Policy on manufacture and distribution of locally
available low cost feed to bridge the gaps between demand and supply for
the feeds
- Fresh water fisheries by
implementing a suitable community based management system
- Regulatory mechanisms for water
sharing for irrigation and fish habitats
- Development of infrastructures
like roads, bridges, jettys and inland waterways transportation
Projects/ Sub-Projects
- Development of suitable land
shaping techniques for integrated agriculture- aquaculture production
systems
- Possible integration of
aquaculture with animal husbandry, agriculture, horticulture like fruits
and vegetables, water chestnut,etc.
- Providing credit support from
financial institutions
Projects/ Sub-Projects
- Delineation of eco-sensitive
areas for the protection and conservation of mangroves, inland tidal water
bodies such as estuaries, logons, lake, creeks, mudflats, coastal fresh
water lakes, breeding ground for flora and fauna, etc.
- Development of bio-shields by
raising halophytes like mangrove and other non-halophytes near sea
- People’s participation approaches
including peoples awareness for the conservation and enhancement of
biodiversity and ecology
Projects/ Sub-Projects
- Delineation of areas vulnerable
to natural disasters and hazards due to climate change based on the
parameters like geology, geomorphology, sea level rising trends, shoreline
displacement, river erosion, tidal ranges and wave heights, etc.
- Contingency plans for mitigation
of sufferings during cyclones, tides and floods
- Multipurpose and integrated
development planning in relation to agriculture and aquaculture for areas
under different vulnerability classes.
- Coordinated action for public and
private sector for disaster management
- Instead of top-down approach for
planning of disaster mitigation measures more emphasis should be given to
local level action by involving the local peoples for development of
mitigation strategies
- Insurance against agriculture
crop failure and loss of aquaculture due to natural disasters
- Innovating approaches for
protecting agriculture and aquaculture against climatic hazards
- Exploitation of renewable energy
resources for improving air quality
- People’s participation in the
development of degraded forest areas
- Mangrove conservation in
mitigation climate change
- Developing disaster warning
system and appropriate e-governance for rapid communication and adoption
of suitable measures particularly in remote areas
6 List of Institutes (for collaboration/
partnership)
|
Bangladesh
|
India
|
||
|
Institute
|
Location
|
Institute
|
Location
|
|
|
|
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (ICAR), Regional
Station
|
|
|
Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
|
|
Central Fishery Research Institute (ICAR)
|
Barrackpore, 24 Parganas (N), WB
|
|
Local Government Engineering Department
|
|
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya
|
Mohanpur,
24 Parganas (N), WB
|
|
|
|
|
Kolkata
|
|
Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute
|
Cox’s Bazar and
|
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (ICAR),
Regional Research Station
|
Kolkata
|
|
District Agricultural Extension Committees
|
Delta Region
|
Indian Veterinary Research Institute (ICAR), Eastern Regional
Station
|
Kolkata
|
|
Upazilla Extension Officers
|
Delta Region
|
National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Eastern Regional
Station
|
Kalyani, Nadia, WB
|
|
Department of Health,
Education & Economic Department
|
|
Central Rice Research Institute (ICAR)
|
|
|
NGO’s based in the Delta region with focus on agriculture
|
Delta Regon
|
Department of Agriculture, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
|
|
Gazipur
|
Department of Fishery, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
|
Bangladesh Forest Research Institute
|
|
Indian Institute of Management
|
Kolkata
|
|
Bangladesh Institute for Development Studies
|
|
Sundarbans Development Board
|
Kolkata
|
|
Centre for Health and Population Research
|
|
Ramkrishna
Mission Ashram (NGO)
|
Nimpith,
24 Parganas (S), WB
|
|
SAARC Meteorological Research Centre
|
|
Central
|
Kakdwip,
24 Parganas (S), WB
|
|
Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute
|
|
Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region (ICAR)
|
|
|
Geological Survey of
|
|
Department of Animal Sciences, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
|
Soil Resources Development Institute
|
|
Department of Horticulture, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
|
|
Department of Health, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
|
|
Department of Irrigation & Waterways, Govt of WB
|
Kolkata
|
||
|
Geological Survey of
|
Kolkata
|
||
|
|
Central Ground Water Board, Eastern Region
|
Kolkata
|
|
7 Literatures cited
Ahmed Saifuddin. Country Paper on “The
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Amarasinghe Upali, A., Shah Tushaar and B.K.Anand, B.K.
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Ambast,
S.K., Sen, H.S. and Tyagi, N.K. (1998). Rainwater Management for Multiple Cropping
in Sundarbans Delta (W.B.). Bulletin 2/98, Regional Research Station,
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Bagchi, K. (1944). The Ganges
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of Calcutta Calcutta
Bandyopadhyay,
B. K. , Maji, B., Sen, H. S. and Tyagi, N. K. (2003). Coastal Soils of West Bengal - their Nature,
Distribution and Characteristics. Technical Bulletin 1/2003, Central
Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Canning Town , India
Bangladesh Meteological Department. Climate of Bangladesh
Banglapedia. Districts under different classes of the
Ganges-Brahmaputra delta (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/B_0404.htm)
Bureau of Applied Economics and
Statistics, Govt of West Bengal ,
India
BWDB, DHV International, DDC and SWMC
(1998). Draft Master Plan, Volume 2:
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Cai, X.L. and Sharma, B. (2009). Remote
sensing and sensor based assessment and scope for improvement of rice and wheat
water productivity in the Indo-Gangetic basin. Science in China Series E-Tech Science 52(11):1-9;
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Director of Marine, Port
of Kolkata Hugli River Diamond Harbour Port of Kolkata India
Islam Shafi Noor and Gnauck Albrecht (2008). Mangrove wetland
ecosystems in Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh China
Mirza, M. Monirul Qader, Warrick, R.A., Ericksen , N.J. Ganges ,
Brahmaputra and Meghna basins? Environmental Hazards 3: 37-48.
Morgan, J.P. and McIntire, W.G. (1959). Quaternary geology of the Bengal Basin East Pakistan and India America
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