Living out of Ganga: A traditional yet imperiled livelihood on bamboo post harvest processing and emerging problems of Ganga

Dipankar Ghorai¹ and H.S. Sen²

^1. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, CRIJAF (ICAR), Bud Bud Burdwan, West Bengal  

^2. Former Director, CRIJAF (ICAR); correspondence: Dr. H.S.Sen, 2/74 Naktala, P.O. Naktala, Kolkata 700 047, Email: hssen.india@gmail.com, hssen2000@hotmail.com  

Abstract

River Ganga with its tributaries provides livelihood for some 140 million people in India. Never in the history of mankind had a river of medium length had such colossal importance ranging from social, cultural, economic and even spiritual motives. From its beginning at Gangotri to its ending at Gangasagar, in the entire stretch of 2510 km, it provides means for livelihood of diverse nature and forms to groups of people. Post harvest processing of bamboo for its endured use utilizing Ganga water is one such livelihood. Considering the wide scale and multifarious utility of bamboo, existence of this group is utterly indispensable and requires attention discussed in the article. The present article is an attempt to put focus on their life and times with the changing Ganga scenarios which are actually two pronged – drying up and pollution facets. While the reasons for drying up of the river affecting the above and all other forms of livelihood are partially climatogenic and geogenic, but mostly anthropogenic in nature, the reasons for pollution are entirely anthropogenic. Ganga is the face of the nation and as such awareness and efforts are needed in all possible quarters to keep the face enlivened before it is too late.

Keywords: livelihood, bamboo, post harvest management, traditional living

14.1 Exordium

GANGA – ‘The Ganges’ in anglicized form– epitomizes purity, sanctity, divinity, motherliness and godliness to Indians. To them, it is not just another river; but, an ecclesiastical embodiment of life flowing through the sacred land of India – a la blood runs through veins. To them, ‘Maa Ganga’ (Mother Ganges) is omnipresent and omnipotent – present in their chants, in their hymns, in their prayers and potent in relieving their pains, their sins, and their sorrows. To them, one dip in Ganga expunges sins of ten births (Dasahara), one drop of holy water from Ganga refurbishes all adulterated drinks, one voyage along its’ length from source to sea is the ultimate Shangri-la. Quintessentially, Ganga symbolizes the rich and age old cultural and religious heritage of a nation – a nation where mythology and cultural tradition is entwined with the sacred topography, where rich biodiversity is entangled with affluent linguistic diversity, where socio-economic well being of millions is gyrated around one particular river – in the Ganges.

14.2 The Ganges, enlivening and myth

The Ganges and livelihood is connected – reality apart – even in our rich mythological fables. Keen readers and readers unfamiliar with Hindu mythology may find interest in this section.  The Ganges is so deeply revered by the Hindus that every cults and sects – be it the Vaishnavas, or Shaktas, or Shaivas and so on - of Hinduism has their own mythical tale to tell about the origin and development of the Ganges in their respective religious anthologies with every one of them varying from the other to some degree. But the most widely popular one is that depicted in one of their epics, the Ramayana, according to which Ganga was created as a result of liquefaction of the energies of Lord Bishnu in heaven and was known as Alakananda. Later on, some mischievousness of Lord Indra led to carnage and calcination of 60000 odd sons (their mythical ancestors) of King Sagar by the Sage Kapila. It was Bhagiratha, great-great-grandson of Sagar, who conciliated Sage Kapila and was advised to bring Ganga to earth for revivification of his ancestors. His rigorous asceticism placated heavenly Gods and they aided Bhagiratha in Ganga’s decent. En route, Bhagiratha faced stiff challenges from heavenly mountains where Ganga lost her way and subsequently Airabata (the omnipotent mythical white elephant) came into her rescue using his tusks and thus Bhagiratha gave new lease of life to his forefathers.   

14.3 The Ganges, livelihood and reality – an overview

In reality, Ganga has its origin in The Garhwal Himalayas at an altitude of 4100 m through liquefaction of Gangotri glacier and curves its’ way through the mountains in Uttaranchal and in Dev Prayag meets her twin sisters, Mandakini and Alkananda, wherefrom the conjoint stream gets its name as The Ganges. During its passage it cleanses the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal within Indian territory en route to Bay of Bengal, where it meets the sea and in conjunction with her myriad tributaries serves millions of people for their livelihood - livelihoods those are diverse in nature and form; livelihoods those are often indiscernible yet indispensable; livelihoods those have immense social significance yet economically trifling. 

In its passage through the plains, the Ganges supports as much as 450 million of people – dependent on her water, directly or indirectly. Never in the history of civilization has a single river, of medium length, been of such colossal importance as the Ganges. Agriculture, of course, is the prime livelihood that is directly linked to the Ganges. In truth, the Gangetic alluvium is one of the most fertile tracts in the world apart from the fact that the Ganges with its irrigation canals is the major source of irrigation in the Gangetic plains. Two main canals from the river are the Upper Ganga Canal, which begins at Hardwar, and the Lower Ganga Canal, which begins at Naraura. Other forms of livelihood include fisheries, navigation, tourism, etc.

Continuing with livelihoods associated with Ganga, let us give a momentary look on two such livelihoods, fishery and idol making, which are of immense economic and social significance, respectively, yet each of them imperiled to some extent due to emerging problems of Ganga. An estimated 13 million people get livelihood out of the rivers in the entire Ganga basin upto an altitude of 1200 m above MSL. As much as 161 different species of fishes are found in the middle and lower segments of Ganga. Unfortunately, the dam building spree along with augmented pollution in the river is steadily truncating the fish density putting a question mark on livelihood security of this group of people. The proportion of major carps in the fishery declined from 43.5 percent to 29 percent by 1972-76 and 13 percent today (Payne et al., 2002). Hilsa (Anadromous hilsa) is a traditional Bengalee delicacy and the fishermen used to profit notably during rainy season which is now on the wane, mostly on account of decreasing water flow particularly in the downstream to Farakka Barrage and partly due to decreased rainfall. Pollution in the river has also added to the woes by diminishing the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and thereby decreasing the fish density.

The fact that Hindus are traditionally idol worshipers has opened another avenue of livelihood in idol making using the river mud. The lower segment of Ganga having high loads of fine silt and clay has let this group of people make easy procurement of primary raw material for their purpose. The mud is used over a structure of straw and bamboo to give shapes to various Gods and Goddesses of Hindu mythology. There is a well known place near Calcutta, namely Kumartuli, where many of these idol makers have congregated thereby rendering the place a unique identity in the world map. Although, these people are not really bothered by the gradual drying up of Ganga they are finding increased difficulty to collect quality clay from the river bed for the beds are often being  loaded with all kinds of debris, waste materials and pollutants.

Apart from these there are other livelihoods like navigation and tourism. Since the Ganges does not have adequate number of bridges across it, the usual way of transportation across the river is the local boats or ferry which has given the opportunity to scores of people in generating an effective livelihood. Along the stretch there are numerous places having historical/social/religious/cultural importance on either bank of the river. This has opened an efficacious avenue for tourism and millions of people earn their livelihood through it. 

These are obvious livelihoods and are discernible to all. But, there are livelihoods which, although being traditional, are often ignored yet invaluable for their social significance. Let us look into the interiors of such a livelihood – their lives, their times, social significance of their very existence and the woes and threats they are facing with the passage of time.    

                

14.3.1 A traditional living out of Ganga

Bamboo is a forest product that is probably unfamiliar to none. But what most people are unfamiliar to is the fact that some very painstaking and fortitude toiling is involved in post harvest fortification of bamboo for its endured use. There is a group of people - not huge in number but traditionally present – residing on either bank in the lowest stretch of the Ganges (known as Bhagirathi or Hoogly river) in West Bengal who have embraced this post harvest processing of bamboo as their livelihood. These people basically congregate in particular places along the banks with their locale being familiar under the name of Bansgola (Bamboo warehouse). Places in the vicinity of Kolkata and its suburbs are these people’s abodes. Collectively, number of people directly engaged in this profession may not be more than 20000 but, considering the extremely broad spectrum of use of bamboo, they are indirectly instrumental in satisfying social, economic, cultural, even religious need of scores of people in the country, apart from the governmental need for production of paper & paper pulp for making currency notes, although the need for the latter is being argued at various fora.  

Before we go into the lives of these people let us have a quick glance on bamboo – its post harvest preservation and end uses – to properly expound the service these people are rendering in a traditional and eco-friendly manner.

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14.3.1.1 Bamboo uses

Bamboo can hardly be regarded as ‘poor man’s wood considering its myriad uses in almost every sphere life – be it urban, suburban, or village life. Every conceivable aspect of our life - social, economic, cultural, and even religious - requires bamboo in someway or the other.  Bamboo means so much for our society that shortage in supply of durable bamboo can impair our everyday life.

14.3.1.2 Bamboo post harvest management

A major drawback of bamboo is that it is not durable against wood degrading organisms. Bamboo, being a lingo-cellulosic material, is thus easily prone to biological degradation. The presence of large amounts of starch makes bamboo highly susceptible to attack by brown-rot fungi and powder-post beetles. Enhanced durability of bamboo, thus, requires post harvest treatment which can be mechanical, chemical or traditional. While fresh bamboo is treated by steeping, sap displacement, diffusion and Boucherie processes, dry bamboo is processed by either soaking in water soluble preservatives, hot-cold process or pressure treatments. Most of these processes are not cost-efficient. One technique that has been in existence in India and elsewhere, like Malyasia, Vietnam and African countries, is the traditional method of water soaking of bamboo in running water – a method that is cost-efficient as well as fairly effective in its purpose. Traditionally, bamboo is soaked in water for 90-100 days which causes starch to ooze out and get dissolved in water thereby making it less prone to wood-mite attack. Added to this, prolonged soaking in water causes the brown rot fungi like Fusarium spp., Trichoderma spp., Aspergillus spp., Alternaria spp., etc. to denature a portion of hemicellulose which prolongs the durability of bamboo further.

14.3.1.3 An eco-friendly practice

Having had this enlightenment on bamboo let us now go back to where we left, i.e., the traditional eco-friendly livelihood out of Ganga on post harvest management of bamboo and have an introspection into their lives and times - their social subsistence, their economic constrictions, their physical afflictions, and the emerging problems those threaten their very existence. But before we proceed, it needs to be mentioned that whatever information or data that is given subsequently has been gathered through interviewing these people in person by the authors at different places in the vicinity of Kolkata and its suburbs possibly for the first time. The authors had to accept the facts on their face value for the reason that their life has not, probably, been articulated elsewhere, or at least, authors could not find any. There may be location-specific variations, in places other than those mentioned in this critique, in the lifestyle elsewhere in India where, and if, this particular profession is practised, but the overall structure should remain the same. It should also be taken note of that the views expressed and the inferences drawn in this article are authors’ personal understanding of the prevailing state of affairs. Reader’s discretion is invited in that this piece is basically a realization in form of a narrative – a realization of the appalling antipathy by concerned corners toward the Ganges putting at risk livelihood of thousands, illustrated by the livelihood under discussion.     

As has been said earlier, these people congregate in one particular place and in West Bengal are found on the either bank of the Ganges in districts of 24-Paraganas (N), Howrah and Hoogly. Each place has around 10-20 traditional families who run the business and according to their financial capability each of them has control over specified area on the river banks and in the river water which they would use for post harvest management of bamboo. Intruding in others’ area is regarded culpable and the guilty one is penalized according to their set protocols.

The division of labour in each Gola (warehouse/depot, Pic. 1) has three separate groups where 2 to 3 men – owners and mangers - manage the entire operations; one group – the transporters - engaged in transportation of bamboo through rivers; and the labours who are engaged in the seasoning process as well as transportation of seasoned bamboo to the places of requirement. Let us have a close look on the living of these groups of people individually. 

The transporters: The principal source of bamboo that these people operate with comes from the districts of Murshidabad, Midnapore and Nadia. Traditionally, around 10000-15000 bamboos are closely tied with rigid nylon ropes into a pattern known to them as Chali (roofing pattern; Pic. 2). This they would tie with a boat that is manually rowed (for reducing transport cost) and embark on their voyage – and quite a voyage! One onward journey from Murshidabad via river Jalangi or churni into Ganga to Kolkata takes as long as one and half month or more! They would adjust to the alternating tides and ebbs and anchor accordingly and favouable conditions prevailing they would start afresh. This particular way of transportation is also practised elsewhere in India and few other countries like Malaysia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, etc.

Presently, the group depending on the size of the Chali usually consists of 7-9 people out of which 2 are Majhi (Boatman) to guide the boat; one who owns the rope (for the ropes are mighty costly and owners more often than not prefers to hire the ropes instead of keeping one of their own); and the rest to manage the Chali. To them, ‘Boat thy name is home’. They live, they eat and drink, and they sleep, and they dream – dream for a better tomorrow – all in that same boat!  

Hurdles during the passage: Often, it is not a smooth sailing for them as they have to confront inclement weather frequently and even from human perpetrators known as Jal Chor (River pirates) who threatens them with their lives for money! Still they risk their lives in doing this to provide two square meals to their families.  These privations notwithstanding, there is emerging an added paradigm to their toil due to ill management of the Ganges resulting in augmented silting of river beds which often results in sand-beds flourishing above water level. Since the boat that guides the chali is manually rowed, often they fail to dodge the sand-bed effectively and the chali gets stuck in the beds and they have no other options than to manually tow the chali out of those sand-beds. This is easier said than done for the bamboos in the challis are so tied as to just float smoothly in water and any kind of coercive force externally applied can unloose the bamboo culms out of the chali. Then they would tie them afresh which further prolongs their voyage. Increasing river pollution is another trouble that they are finding hard to cope up with. As they are often compelled to use river water for cooking, drinking and other routine purposes; polluted sewage effluents, toxic industrial runoffs, increasing amount of suspended particles in water, stomach-churning smell of human and animal corpses floating are rendering them increasingly disease prone.    

Hard labour and the earnings: Now, let us examine their earnings from such toil. The group is paid on the number of bamboo in the chali. For each bamboo they would receive presently Rs. 1.5-2.5, depending on the length of the bamboo. The total sum when divided equally among all the group members comes to a paltry sum of Rs. 2000 – 3000 per month which, considering the flagrant inflationary trend of all kinds of food materials and living accessories, is no less than ridiculous! So, what do you call it – a living or subsisting? A very melancholy KHOKON BALA (thus earning livelihood for 30 years) answers, “We were living satisfactorily 15 years back, but this price hike and the emerging problems of Ganga is making our lives no less than hell. We are finding it hard to make ends meet.”        

Pic. 3. Labours making bamboo culms ready for transport after post harvest processing (© Authors)

The labours: In comparison to the transporters, the other group who puts in physical exertion - and the maximum actually -, i.e., the group of labours (Pic. 3), in keeping this particular tradition of bamboo post harvesting alive, are a touch more solvent. It entails mentioning that a lion share of their physical exertion is not directly linked with the Ganges or the changes in it with time and hence a discussion on their livelihood may seem gratuitous, but the very fact that as a part of the whole system their presence is a sine qua non in maintaining this tradition justifies that a few lines be spoken on them here.   

Most of the people of this group hail from the states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh while few of them only are Bengalees (due to well-known distaste of Bengalees to hard physical labour!). Except transportation though river, they do all the physical labuoring needed in making the bamboo culms reach its end users. After cleansing the culms from mud, they dry those in vertical or horizontal stacks. Then as per requirement they load and take those to the customers in hand drawn carts. Few of their co-workers (and mostly Bengalees!) prefer cycle-van over hand drawn carts, but are vastly outnumbered by the latter. Most of the workers from outside states do not have a permanent shelter over their head. They eat, they rest, and they sleep in a khatia (a bamboo and rope cot) or whatever vantage position they can grab to (Pic. 4). During daytime they usually have nominal work to do and they are used to spend the day by resting and sleeping. The actual toiling starts after midnight when they have to take the cart-load of bamboo culms to various places within the city and its outskirts for authorities prohibit their movement during daytime due to traffic. Often they have to traverse 20 - 40 km, from one end of city to the other, and mostly on bare feet! Cities being interspersed with multiple overbridges, many of which are steeper than usual for space constriction, they cannot generate enough frictional force with the slippers they use to wear in ascending up or descending down such bridges with a load of around one tonne or more!, Often they are so sapped of their energies that they do not have the power to speak for an hour long when, engulfed in perspiration all over, they reach their destination. Now, what else task is Herculean if not this!? 

Now let us see their earnings from such an ordeal. They used to get 12- 15 days – or nights to be precise - in a month to work and get paid accordingly, for beyond 15 days a month their physical endurance is stretched to the limit. They are paid on the number, length/weight of culms and the distance they carry, and on an average they would get between Rs. 4000 – 6000 per month presently. But then though they do not have to counter the emerging problems of Ganga, their occupation is more risky than the other group. Now and then, in the dead of the night, they are slain by an intoxicated truck driver driving in a devil-may-care manner or a heedless car. Hundreds have died in such ‘accidents’ in the past ten years or so. They do not get any kind of security either for their owns or for their family left behind back home. So, why are you risking your life? One philosophical DHARMENDRA YADAV (a 52 year old man, originated in UP, in this profession for 22 years) returns in a remorse yet candid manner, “We are born to give physical labour. We know that there is no one to take care of us but we have to take care of our family. Earlier it was good money and less risk but now the situation has changed. Yes, risks are there but life must go on.”        

The owners: Now the remaining group, i.e. the group of owners, who, although much more solvent than the previous groups, are much more apprehensive as well in regard of future prospects. Each gola is run by a separate family, while some of these families are in the same trade for as much as 10 generations long. But unlike a profitable business, their dealings are waning with dwindling water flow in the Ganga and pollution facets as well as the misanthropic attitude of government people. A good number of warehouses has ceased to run or has changed hands with the passage of time owing to non- sustainability.

Sustainability and eco-friendliness: Each of the warehouses has one room roofed with mud tiles which they call their ‘office’ (Pic. 5) from where they coordinate the proceedings. One of the principal uses of bamboo is in construction works which now has in many places been replaced with hollow iron poles and as such bamboo requirement as well as market price has not kept pace either with time or with population. The river transportation mode of bamboo is gradually calling it a day for the emerging problems of Ganga and as such they have no other option left than to shift to road transportation mode which is far more expensive. Still more, the authorities often harass and extort them with money in the name of Ganga pollution while the crux of the matter is that, pollution remaining a falsehood; this practice is actually eco-friendly - more than many other means of living associated with the Ganges.

The starch material secreting out of the bamboo culms, while in water, actually multiplies the phytoplankton density in the vicinity of the chali which augment fish density – a fact that has a direct and traditional bearing on fishermen’s locale being adjacent to theirs’ (It has to be mentioned that authors’ keen observation along with these peoples’ experiences form the basis of this fact. No reference to such works is however available).  

Ironically, it is the escalating river pollution by other means which is causing them headache increasingly. Now and then, multiple staining chemicals are discharged into Ganga from the dyeing and other chemical factories located on the banks and as such the bamboo culms get stained thereby trimming down the market value. Apart from this the increasing density of detrimental bio-agents are biodegrading the culms more than required thereby decreasing the durability. So, why are you continuing with this profession? A dejected looking PANCHANAN HALDER (an elderly gentleman from a family continuing in this trade for seven generations running) presents an indifferent eye – an eye that has more apprehension than aspiration – and somewhat soliloquizes, “I am just living on the tradition of my forefathers.  What remains are only shadows from the past”.   

14.4 Dwindling water flow and increasing pollution

So, there goes the chronicle of their life and livelihood – unbiased, unabridged and a bit emotion provoking, too! There are many a KHOKON or DHARMENDRA or PANCHANAN making a living of some kind out of the Ganges, and whose livelihoods are under threat courtesy of inordinate insensitivities – social, regional and political – towards the Ganges, which the authors have tried to articulate, solemnly yet categorically, through their example.  But, before emotions get better of senses, let us contemplate over the problems which are imperiling them. The crisis is basically two pronged – dwindling water flow and burgeoning water pollution in the Ganges. While the latter can well be coped with, the former has to be lived with unless the Government is careful enough to control indiscriminate construction of dams in the river course and diversion of water otherwise, particularly in the upstream, harmful effect due to global warming notwithstanding. Let us discuss these in brief and excogitate the means to attenuate the problems intended not only to revitalize the issue on bamboo post harvesting discussed above, but also to restore the livelihood security on various fronts along the entire stretch of flow.      

14.4.1 Drying up of Ganga

There are, actually, two separate facets behind the dwindling water flow in Ganga, both of which are anthropogenic – one affecting directly while the other indirectly. The indirect cause is global warming, most of which stemming from anthropogenic enrichment of Green House Gasses (GHGs) in the atmosphere inducing melting of glacial ice caps with glacier Gangotri being no exception. Earth’s temperature is rising and could rise between 0.3 to 6.4⁰C by 2100 depending on various resources utilization scenarios (IPCC, 2007). This could spell doom for glacial ice caps like Gangotri and others. In one study by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) it was shown that tongue of the glacier has severely shortened in the past 200 years or so. In one report named ”Gangotri glacier melting rapidly” the snowmelt run-off of the Gangotri

Fig. 2. Shortening of tongue of gangotri

glacier had been recorded at a huge 57.45 cubic meters annually within just five years since 1999 (Knapp, 2010). According to Professor Syed Iqbal Hasnain, an expert on glaciers, the Hindukush-Himalayan-Tibetan glaciers can see a 43 percent decrease in the glacial area by 2070 and a 75 percent decrease by the end of the 21st century at the current rate. Although this augmented melting has increased the total water flux in the upper Ganga segment, the suspended sedimentation that the snowmelt run-off of the Gangotri glacier carries with it has increased to around 17.78 lakh tons a year which, apart from endangering some vitally important dams like Tehri Dam, is raising the river bed, causing enhanced lateral water flow through spill channels, and thereby reduces the flux through the main channel. Although dams are an effective and cheap source of energy, there is limit in number beyond which building of these through their direct influence can seriously impair the natural riverine ecosystem. In case of Ganga, these are actually the principal anthropogenic undoing which is decreasing the water flux in the middle and lower segments of Ganga thereby jeopardizing livelihood of millions. The northern states, and especially Uttarakhand, are on a dam building frenzy to harness hydro power. So much so, that the Upper Ganga System alone, including Bhagirathi and Alkananda Rivers and their tributaries, till their confluence at Dev Prayag, has more than 130 large and small hydro power dams either planned (Anon, 2011), commissioned, or under construction. This flawed, shoddy, biased, unacceptable and unprecedented cascade of dams has some serious negative implications for the fragile river system.    

Continuing with dams, let us now concentrate on one particular dam in Farakka Barrage which has altogether altered the hydrologic cycle of entire Bengal basins. It is located at Farakka in Murshidabad district of West Bengal over Ganga and was commissioned in 1975 with a principal objective to resuscitate Kolkata (erstwhile Calcutta) Port. Calcutta being the epicenter of operations during British rule, construction of one port was planned near the city and got commissioned in 1890 without consideration of proper technical and hydraulic factors (Sinha, 1986). But the neo-tectonic movements during 16th–18th century having had tilted the Bengal basin eastward, when Ganga got bifurcated into twin flows near Mithipur, 40 km south-east from Farakka barrage – Bhagirathi within the Indian territory and Padma in Bangladesh – the Bhagirathi was rendered into mostly a spill channel flow. Then one undoing, in building the Calcutta port itself, was endeavoured to counterbalance with another – in devising the Farakka Barrage - to divert enough water towards the Bhagirathi to flush out the sediment load that was impairing Calcutta port in regard of navigational aspects!  But the arithmetic hydrology that worked in favour of the barrage was subsequently proved inadequate to bring about any positive impact either in flushing out the sediment load, or to share dry-season flow between the two countries for their mutual benefits, the very purposes for which it was conceived and thus given rise to an array of problems – in within and trans-border - like severe erosion in the upstream resulting in large scale devastation of natural and human capital, augmented river salinity rendering it less potable than ever, ethnic conflicts and serious tensions between neighboring countries, etc. Since then much water has flown through the Ganges but the problems and tensions persisted when in 1996, sense of international brotherhood prevailing, it was decided by the then Indian Government to divert an assured 33000 cusec of water towards the Padma during lean seasons between January and May. Neither of the countries eventually gets the required quota of their share due to the above direct and indirect influences, and for the Indian part in particular increased sedimentation along the Bhagirathi (Figure 14.1) has been causing colossal erosion of the river banks, damaging the livelihood and eco-system, and finally threatening the very existence of the Calcutta Port.

Insert Figure 14.1 here

14.4.2 Pollution in Ganga

In its different stretches the divine river Ganga encounters different challenges ranging from the deprived environmental flow in the upper stretches by virtue of plethora of dams to enormous pollution loads discharged by developing cities and industrial clusters in the middle and lower segments that has eventually transformed the sacred water to nearly sewage water in many places. According to the Central Pollution Control Board 42 % of the 12,690 kilometers length of the river Ganga including its tributaries is moderately or severely polluted (BOD—biochemical oxygen demand greater than 3 mg l^-1) and hence unfit for bathing and drinking. This is almost 40 per cent of India’s polluted riverine length. While Ganga accounts for 28% share of India’s total riverine length, its corresponding share of the total polluted riverine length is 36% (Figure 14. 2) – the most by far.   

Insert Figure 14.2 here

In one study on monitoring of fecal coliforms in Ganga water, it was found that excepting Rishikesh all other monitoring stations has coliforms population in water much higher than that is suited for bathing or drinking purposes with monitoring stations in West Bengal being on the pinnacle (Figure 14.3). 

Insert Figure 14.3 here

Apart from mass scale urbanization leading to burgeoning pollution, superstitions and religious significance of Ganga also adds on to it. Most of us, Indians with our pious mindset, do not seem to realize the value of this pristine river and as such the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) initiated by the Government is a failure in many places.

14.4.3 Towards attenuation of the emerging problems: abating the abuse

Sans mass scale realization of the enormous value of Ganga, its abuse can not be abated. Any amount of time, energy and money spent in resolving the issue would have Achilles’ heel without holistic appreciation of the true value of the Ganges by authorities as well as common people. Here authors would like to take the opportunity to suggest some measures for improved livelihood security which should be pondered upon by the appropriate authorities.

1. There is need for a study to regulate water flow through construction of structures and diversion of water at strategic points along the river systems upstream in order to ensure that minimal required water flows to and through the Farakka barrage.

2. Forthwith stopping of the proposed dams in the upstream for any future action plans for improvement will be futile if the upstream regulation is not viewed seriously. Hopefully, the government of India through a decision of an authority chaired by the Prime Minister has decided that no hydropower projects will be built on the initial 135 km stretch of Ganga.

3. The shortcomings in the planning and execution of the much-hyped Ganga Action Plan should be carefully studied.

4. In dealing with this issue a total Ganga Basin Management Plan has to be formulated taking the basin in its totality and micro level issues being at the heart of the planning with active participation of peoples.

5. Appropriate interventions may be developed for (i) higher productivity in agriculture, aquaculture, forestry, etc. under favourable soil and water conditions, and (ii) reduced hazard due to flooding of low lands and erosion of river banks (Sen, 2010).

14.5 Dénouement

Swami Vivekananda used to preach, “Gita and Ganga constitute the essence of Hinduism; one in theory and the other in practice.” Indeed. Ganga is so inextricably woven into the social, economic, cultural and religious fabric of Indians and penetrates so deep into common Indian psyche that often our practices on or with Ganga turns into malpractices, ours’ remaining oblivious and ignorant. Ganga is a river probably second to none on this planet which means so much for the life and livelihood of people around it. Ganga is the FACE of India and Indians’ salvation lies in enlivening the FACE. The apparent antipathy of concerned authorities in conjunction with absence of realpolitik measures and appropriate laws is slowly, but surely, assisting Ganga into the oblivion. THEY are continuing to devise faulty plans to solve the issue in piecemeal rather than holistic manner and without participation of the people living around it. THEY are even tormenting their grey cells in chalking elaborate – and expensive as well - plans to decorate Ganga and her banks to beautify her and give a facelift to the cities without realizing the defacement of nature!

Bhagiratha had his salvation in resuscitating his ancestors by carrying Ganga to earth, while WE, Bhagirathas of modern times, bear the accountability of regulating steady passage of Ganga so that our descendants may continue to live. Indras are bound to be there imperiling the right of millions to live, but WE have to defeat their vicious intentions and invoke Airabatas, wherever necessary, to make HER way. It is time that we must realize that THE MOTHER is dying. Listen carefully to her sighs! SHE is groaning for breathing space and so are the KHOKONs or DHARMENDRAs or PANCHANANs and thousands like them living out of Ganga. SO, GIVE EAR!    

References

1. Anonymous, (2011) Dams, Rivers &  People. www.sandrp.in/drp/June_July_Aug_2011.pdf.
2. IPCC, (2007) Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Parry, Martin L., Canziani, Osvaldo F., Palutikof, Jean P., van der Linden, Paul J., and Hanson, Clair E. (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, pp.1000.
3. Knapp S., (2010) Disappearance of the Ganga. http://www.stephen-knapp.com/disappearance_of_the_ganges.htm.
4. Payne A. I., Sinha R., Singh H. R. And Huq S., (2002) A review of the Ganges basin: Its fish and fisheries. www.fao.orgdocrep007ad525ead525e0f.htm.
5. Rudra K., (2006) Report, Centre for Development and Environment Policy, Indian Institute of Management, Kolkata. pp. 59.
6. Sen H. S., (2010) The drying up of River Ganga: an issue of common concern to both India and Bangladesh. Current Sc., 99 (6), pp. 725 -727.
7. Sinha A., (1986) A victim of political indecision (Farakka - a Gordian Knot, edited by Sunil Sen Sarma, Ishika, Calcutta.

Captions for Chapter 14 Images

Figure 14.1 Effect of Farakka barrage in augmented silting in the Ganges (Source: Rudra, 2006; reproduced with permission)

Figure 14.2 Pollution in Indian rivers (drawn based on data source: http://www.old.cseindia.org/misc/ganga/state_pollution.pdf )

Figure 14.3 Fecal coliforms in water at different monitoring places on Ganga (Source:http://www.old.cseindia.org/misc/ganga/state_pollution.pdf; reproduced with permission of R.C.Trivedi, CPCB)